Hyperthyroidism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hyperthyroidism - Research Paper Example It very well may be treated in an assortment of ways, with the specialist choosing the best technique for treatment subsequent to contemplating the age, history and reason for the sickness of individual patients . The malady is more typical in ladies than in men and infrequently influences youngsters underneath 15 years of age.It is assessed that 1% of the US populace has hyperthyroidism. It is frequently found in old individuals who are more than 60 years old as thyroid knobs that are irregularities in the thyroid organ. The condition is treated with against thyroid medications, medical procedure, or radioactive iodine. Individuals with hyperthyroidism can live typical, dynamic lives with ordinary observing and clinical consideration. The human endocrine framework is comprised of organs that emit hormones that are discharged into the circulatory system and keep up the body’s metabolism.The endocrine organs are the primary hormone creating organs in the human body. The thyroid organ in the neck is one of the organs of the endocrine framework, the pituitary organ in the mind is another. The pituitary organ which is about the size of a pea, is situated at the base of the cerebrum. It is frequently alluded to as the ace organ since it controls a few organs in the endocrine framework. ... Iodine is a significant segment of the thyroid hormone. At the point when the thyroid organ creates a lot of the thyroid hormone, it brings about a condition referred to as Hyperthyroidism normally known as overactive thyroid. It is some of the time called thyrotoxicosis which is the specialized term for an excess of thyroid hormone in the blood. The term hyperthyroidism alludes to a gathering of scatters that are related with expanded degrees of thyroid hormone in the blood. â€Å"Hyperthyroidism influences 2.5 million individuals in the United States, yet could influence up to 4.5 million individuals since the greater part of the individuals with thyroid sickness don't realize they have it. Despite the fact that it happens at all ages, hyperthyroidism is well on the way to happen after the time of 15.†(Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative medication 2005) The term hyperthyroidism is utilized to allude to illnesses that are caused because of over the top creation of the hormones delivered in the thyroid organ. The thyroid organ produces two hormones - One containing 4 units of iodine called Thyroxin (T4) and the other called triiodothyronine (T3) which contains three units of iodine. These two hormones control the body's metabolic rate by assisting with shaping protein ribonucleic corrosive (RNA) and expanding oxygen assimilation in each cell. An expansion in metabolic action, is the manner by which cells react to the thyroid hormone. Metabolic movement, or digestion, alludes to the procedures in the body that produce vitality. The concoction substances important for cells to develop, separate, to frame new cells, and perform other crucial capacities are for the most part forms included under the term digestion . Digestion controls the rate at which cells consume energizes from food to create vitality. Increment

Communication Skills for Postgraduate Study †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Talk about the Communication Skills for Postgraduate Study. Answer: Overpopulation in India, Global Issue: Introduction Overpopulation is a genuine danger to our own reality (Lahore, 2017). This issue ought not be tended to just in only not many nations rather it is the significant issue that should be tended to in the entire world. India is the away from of expanding populace as each edge of India is packed. This report outlines the reasons for quick development of populace in India and outcomes of overpopulation. This report likewise examines a portion of the strategies and techniques to control the over populace in India so as to make the pace between the fast development of populace and financial development. Conversation India is currently the living spot for 1.2 billion individuals and by the center of this century, the number of inhabitants in India is anticipated to increment to 1.8 billion individuals. As per the Indian Census of 2011, the number of inhabitants in India was 1,210,193,422 which demonstrated that India is following the China if there should arise an occurrence of populace development. The different examinations directed by specialists have evaluated that shockingly India will be worldwide number one most crowded nation before the finish of year 2025. In India, each side of the nations represents overpopulation as the quantity of individuals is expanding at an exceptionally quick rate contrasted with the developing framework. The confirmations of overpopulation can be found in each spot, for example, in metro station, railroad station, streets, market, emergency clinic and others. The issue of overpopulation is developing consistently with no indication of control. These spots are packed with individuals simply battling to modify itself in the given zone. For instance, in clinics and railroad station individuals are seen enduring because of absence of spots, for example, patients in emergency clinic are simply left on grounds because of inaccessibility of beds and are not treated. This has been the expanding worry about the general public; be that as it may, nothing being accomplished for the reason. The populace has just been expanding at an exceptionally quick rate and is evaluated to increment significantly further (Singh, Sing h, Srivastava 2016). The confirmations are found in each city of the nation, for example, New Delhi, the capital of the nation alone depicts a populace of 23 million. This contains an enormous piece of the 1.8 billion absolute populace of the nation. This shows the megacities of the nation have immense populace contrasted with little urban communities. In this manner, a hole is in a flash noticeable between various urban areas of the nation in regards to populace pressure. Weight of populace is found in the nation as per ongoing investigates it is assessed that the organization includes 700,000 occupants consistently. This shows the level of populace pressure the nation permits in its limit, which is causing packing in numerous spots (Basha 2016). The measure of overpopulation is additionally obvious in the general public as the majority of the individuals can't get the entrance to fundamental comforts of life. Individuals are stuck in lines and group for city trucks to gracefully waters in a portion of the regions particularly ghettos. This shows the worry and expanding Global issues in the nation that emerges from a significant issue that is overpopulation (Coale, Johnson, Edgar 2015). The Indias populace is extending because of headway in clinical advances and development underway of horticulture (Lahore, 2017). The other reason for the development of populace in India is that the birth rate is higher than the demise rate. As it is observed that the birth rate is expanding consistently in the nation in view of different explanation. In any case, the nation has had the option to lessen the demise rate, there are as yet expanding birth rate. This the mix of low demise rate and expanding birth rate has expanded the weight considerably more on the nation without any indications of control. The explanation of expanding populace is additionally obvious because of advancement in the way of life of the individuals and increment in future (Cassen 2016). It is recommended by the hypothesis of segment change that after certain degree of decrease in birth rate and family estimates, the richness level of the individuals will again increment as the nation creates. Therefore, th e capacity of the nation to recuperate from underdevelopment to improvement is causing negative effects, which is noticeable from populace development (Thomas 2014). The general act of early marriage of young ladies despite everything exists in the India which is likewise one of the reasons for higher birth pace of babies (Phukan, 2014). Another significant calculate prompting overpopulation India is the neediness as individuals feel that more kids will procure more cash. Notwithstanding it, lack of education is additionally one of the main variables for fast development of the populace. Another reason for congestion is the relationship between's the circumstance of overpopulation and neediness. The connection exists unequivocally between these two factors as because of expanding destitution and failure of the individuals to purchase contraception measure prompts populace development. They can't accepting the cutting edge strategies and instruments by which they can control the introduction of youngsters. In addition, destitution likewise prompts failure of the individuals to take great instruction from a well famous spot, which prompts absence of education. Such circumstance makes it unfit for the individuals to understand the negative impact of populace development and significance of populace control (Moghadam, He lbich 2013). Another factor is the well established standards as in India individuals accepts that male youngster is the bread worker of the families and guardians are pressurized to deliver the kids till male kid is born(Phukan, 2014). Relocation is one more explanation of developing populace in the nation as individuals are moving from other nation to India for different reasons. The greater part of the relocation is unlawful in the nation, for example, from Bangladesh. These individuals relocate to India for some criminal operations and afterward start another living here. In any case, the primary driver of such expanding illicit relocation is the terrible and improper political structure of the nation. These legislators and their competition permit these individuals to settle in the nation for their own advantages and money related qualities (Bokde, Gupta, Kulat 2017). There are a few effects of overpopulation. As a matter of first importance, there is joblessness as it is hard to produce work for such an immense populace. Also, there is pressure on framework as the foundation offices advancement isn't staying up with the fast extension of populace. In addition, the quantity of ghettos, packed houses and traffic clog increments with fast development of populace. Not just this, the assets are being overutilised which prompts deficiency of assets and the assets like woods; land zones are being over abused. There is inconsistent allotment of the imbalances and pay inside the nation as the populace is developing at fast rate in India (Phukan, 2017). Another significant effect of over populace is fall in capital development. Close about 35% of the populace in India is beneath the age of 14 who are reliant on others for their endurance. Accordingly, the limit diminishes because of weight of ward which brings about the destruction of capital development (Ram, 2014). Fast development of populace presses farming area and prompts a few natural issues like water contamination , air contamination , land contamination and clamor contamination (B. Joson.etal, 2010) India is experiencing financial imbalance, which is bringing forth the destitution at an expanded rate. The issue of overpopulation included developed progressively basic nature because of the headways in the field of man-made consciousness. Mechanization has expected to undermine 70% lose in workforce alongside the million of occupation misfortunes which are now occurring in the creation segments of IT. Internet business has needed to take up this far because of the cuts in position which isn't as serious as in the commercial center. Unreasonable populace is prompting the breakdown of the organizations and it is making all arrangements to acquire upgrades the framework of the nation. This further fuses Government of India which is attempting to sanction changes since the hour of Independence (Singh et al 2015). The aftereffect of the development of populace is a more serious issue that the whole world would confront later or sooner. Drinking water, medicines of sewage, absence of precipitation, fast theft of the common assets and the eradication of numerous creature and plant species because of the overabundance cutting of trees and the loss of financial framework, expanding the degree of perilous water, air and because of the extraordinary neediness, these issues are occurring at a bigger scope. Because of overpopulation, there is an expansion in the quantity of jobless individuals and the improvement of the business is moderate (Grimmet et al 2013; Singh et al 2015). This came about to the correspondence hole and the absence of medicinal services, instruction and lodging. Creation in food is diminishing and this is additionally prompting the expanding of the cost of the rest of the food. With the expanding of populace, there is a biased dissemination of the salary, which is making the nee diness in India serious. The lack of education is likewise liable for the development of populace. Early relationships and overabundance labor with no family arranging is additionally a significant effect of the over populace. To top of this, joblessness is another significant consequence of the effect of this greater issue. At last, the over populace is influencing the adjustments in the financial pattern of the nation. In any case, with the progression in the field of innovation in India, is prompting the decay of youngster death rate in India (Grimmet et al 2013) So as to control the number of inhabitants in India, the administration of India should begin a populace approach so quick development of populace can stay up with the financial development of the nation (Phukan, 2017). Expanding the government assistance and s

Graphene

Graphene There have been many exciting advancements in the field of materials science in the past quarter century. Perhaps none has generated the enthusiasm and excitement as the substance known as Graphene. This substance is pure carbon in the form of sheets one atom thick. Graphene is estimated to be 200 times stronger than steel, is as flexible as rubber, and conducts heat and electricity extremely efficiently. Further, because it is only an atom thick, it is nearly two-dimensional, imbuing it with many interesting light-related, and water-related properties.Graphene is not a naturally occurring substance. Even though it had been theorized by physicists since the 1960s, it was only produced for the first time in 2004. Back then, production methods made Graphene usage prohibitively expensive; however, over the past decade, academics and corporate researchers have made great strides in reducing production costs. And as those costs drop further with each passing year, Graphene is poised to re volutionize the fields of medicine, electronics, computing, and more. © Shutterstock.com | Anna KireievaIn this article we will look at 1) overview of materials and RD, 2) discovery of Graphene, 3) properties of Graphene, 4) benefits of Graphene, 5) Graphene production, 6) commercial usage of Graphene, and 7) current potential applications of Graphene.OVERVIEW OF MATERIALS AND RDWhile Graphene may have garnered considerable public interest, it remains to be seen exactly how much impact it will have. And each day, physicists and chemists are delving deeper into the physical world, learning more and more about the building blocks of our world and how they may be harnessed to build new things.Notable developments and trendsShortly after Graphene’s discovery in 2004, the editorial team at Materials Today compiled a list of the top 10 breakthroughs in materials science in the past 50 years. Graphene was notably absent from the list, but present were some of the biggest areas of discovery and commercial interest, including:Carbon fiber reinforced plastic s â€" used in racecars, and bikes, among other applications;Materials for Li ion batteries â€" used in laptops and cellphones;Carbon nanotubes â€" few commercial applications currently, but these will likely play a central role in emerging nanotechnologies;Metamaterials â€" recent experiments involving these resulted in a prototype invisibility cloak.By 2013, however, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers noted Graphene production as number one of their top five trends in mechanical engineering, along with:Electric ink, which would allow people to “write” their own circuit boards;Multi-ferroics, which could significantly enhance data storage;Nano anodes, which could create rapidly rechargeable batteries; andNanotube threads, which could be used to eventually build a space elevator.Key players in materials RDBecause of their various applications, research in materials science is performed and funded by a diverse group of players. Many governments allocate research funding for innovations that have the potential to have tangible economic impact. Militaries have interests in many of these discoveries; for example, the U.S. Army has provided funding for the metamaterials experiments surrounding the invisibility cloak. Academics often lead the way in research, with breakthroughs often resulting from teams for researchers from disparate universities. Outside of governments, militaries, and institutions of higher education, much direct investment in materials science research comes from corporations.DISCOVERY OF GRAPHENEGraphene existed in theory in 1962, when chemist Hanns-Peter Boehm described it in a paper published in the Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry. But in 2003, Russian physicist Andre Geim, then studying at the University of Manchester, set about to produce it. He used scotch tape to pull up progressively thinner layers of graphite, and then dissolved the tape, which eventually left him with the first instances of Graphene. In 2004, Ge im and his research colleague Kostantin Novoselov, published an academic paper on the discovery, which has since become one of the most widely cited papers in the field of physics. For this work, he and Novoselov received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010.Graphene 200 times stronger than steel PROPERTIES OF GRAPHENEGraphene is a hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms bonded tightly together. Its sp2 hybridisation â€" a double bond between the carbon atoms, coupled with its especially thin atomic thickness, fuel its special properties. Its ability to conduct electricity and heat so effectively are believed to be a function of the carbon bonds being very small and strong. Being composed of singular carbon atoms, Graphene is also so thin as to be effectively two-dimensional, in addition to being extremely light weight. © Flickr | CORE-MaterialsBENEFITS OF GRAPHENEGraphene’s benefits are closely tied to its properties, which make it tremendously attractive as a raw material for the production of a wide variety of commercial goods. In short, Graphene’s major benefits are that it is highly conductive 200 times more conductive than silicon, and conducts heat very efficiently as well; thin â€" enough to be considered a 2D material; transparent; strong â€" approximately 200 times stronger than steel; light-weight; and flexible, while maintaining its strength and conductivity.What is Graphene[slideshare id=13776961doc=graphene-120727094303-phpapp01w=640h=330]GRAPHENE PRODUCTIONAs of 2014, Graphene is still a fairly expensive material to produce, though innovations in the production process have already reduced its price per cm. There are two main methods for producing Graphene: exfoliation and epitaxy.ExfoliationThe academic and commercial use of exfoliation, known as mechanical exfoliation, to prod uce Graphene is a refinement of the process Geim and Novoselov used to first produce it. It produces flakes of varying sizes (in powder form), which are considered natural Graphene, in volume. These readily have applications in polymer, paint, and lubricant production. There is also liquid-phase exfoliation, in which graphite is suspended in liquid and then exposed to high frequencies of sound to produce Graphene flakes.EpitaxyProducing Graphene through epitaxy (also known as chemical vapor deposition or CVD) involves heat treating a susbstrate, such as silicon carbide, nickel, copper or iridium in a gaseous atmosphere that reduces the substrate into Graphene. It produces a film of Graphene (considered synthetic Graphene), that is free of the impurities in natural Graphene, and lends itself readily to use as various electronic applications, and potentially even clothing. It is also the more expensive of the two methods.COMMERCIAL USAGE OF GRAPHENEFirms using GrapheneWhile Graphene i s still a relatively new material, many firms are racing to adopt it. These include, but are not limited to big name electronics brands, such as Samsung, IBM, Nokia, Google, SanDisk and Apple, who are looking for ways to incorporate it in their products. In 2013, a UK intellectual patent report noted that Samsung led all firms in Graphene-related patents with 405 worldwide. Given the growing market for the material graphite company Graftech International; deposition technology company Aixatron; UK-based Applied Graphene Technologies and more, are rapidly scaling up their research and production of Graphene to meet demand.Challenges of using GrapheneThe biggest challenge to the commercial usage of Graphene is the production cost. As of 2013, some vendors were charging as much as $60 per square inch, according to a recent Forbes article. This makes the integration of the material into electronics cost prohibitive. The manufacturing processes themselves are nascent, and, while they can reliably produce Graphene, they are in need of further refinement to bring the price point down. Another significant challenge is the fact that Graphene is such a good conductor that it cannot be switched off. It lacks what is known as a band-gap, which means that it cannot be adopted into electrical systems; however, recent research has seen promising developments addressing that problem.Projected growth of the Graphene marketHowever, most experts agree that Graphene has enormous upside potential. Not only are firms and universities racing to procure patents, but Graphene’s wide-range of potential applications ensure that demand will continue to grow. Research and Markets’ October 2013 “Global Graphene Market report” forecasts that the compound annual growth rate for Graphene is 60.4% over the period 2012 to 2016. This is driven primarily by massive RD expenditures from major firms like Samsung and IBM, as well as Graphene’s own attributes. In 2013, the European Union an nounced its plans to fund Graphene research that drives innovation and job growth over the next decade to the tune of €1 billion.CURRENT POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF GRAPHENEThe enthusiasm of corporate and academic researchers is understandable. Graphenes current and potential applications are astounding and could revolutionize many products, markets and fields. These include:MedicineApplications include the development of bioelectric sensors and bio imaging devices, drug and gene delivery, more effective powerful disinfectants, and DNA sequencing â€" pending safety and clinic trials, of course. Artificial implants are also being explored, that would be connected directly to your neural system, harnessing Graphene’s conductive properties. Graphene could also be used to produce more effective spinal surgical equipment.ComputingGraphene can be used to radically improve the processing power of computer chips. In January of 2014, IBM announced that they had created a Graphene chip 10, 000 times faster than standard chips. This was an analog chip, not a digital one, due to Graphene’s band gap. But future RD will likely bring us computers with Graphene â€"based CPUs that are more powerful than our current devices by several orders of magnitude, and that consume less energy.Electronics Graphene enthusiasts have long been touting Graphene’s potential to replace silicon in common electric circuitry but the band gap remains the challenge. However, Graphene’s transparency and flexibility will undoubtedly eventually transform the field of electronics. Scientists have been experimenting with quick charging batteries, high-quality headphones, flexible electronics, more capable photo-sensors, and virtually unbreakable touch screens, among other applications. The integration of Graphene into the field of optical electronics could lead to the eventual development of updatable e-paper, among other exciting new breakthroughs.Water purificationGraphene filters water and practically nothing else, making it perhaps the most effective water filtration material available. Lockheed Martin has a Graphene water filter in development, which they claim will reduce the energy costs of desalination plants by 99% but it is not yet on the market. Graphene production remains a challenge, but Graphene oxide, which is easier to produce, has similar water-related properties and is much easier and cheaper to produce. This could not only play a significant role in increasing the amount of potable drinking water worldwide (especially in developing countries), but could also have a tremendous effect on alcohol distillation methods.Waterproofing materialsWhile Graphene is an extremely efficient water filter, researchers at Vanderbilt University have found ways to apply it to other materials in ways that cause those materials to become either superabsorbent or super repellent. This has tremendous commercial potential when you consider waterproof materials, electronics, and buildings. Nokia is already working on developing a waterproof smartphone.Energy storageGraphene’s ability to conduct heat and electricity extremely effectively lend it to the development of more rapidly-charging batteries. Prototype Graphene smartphone batteries in development at UCLA and elsewhere cha rge fully in mere seconds. Graphene-based super capacitors are being explored for eventual usage in cellphones and other portable devices.Another application is in the production of more proficient photovoltaic cells, which could be used in clothing, and is of particular interest to firms developing wearable tech, such as Wearable Solar. Even the U.S. military is looking into photovoltaics to power military equipment in the field. As Graphene research and development continues, it will doubtlessly be integrated into commercial and military photovoltaic production.Other applicationsGraphene’s incorporation into other materials, such as paint, plastic, and polymer production, is being explored. A Grapheneâ€"based paint, applied to a device or a house for example, could conceivably also store solar energy, powering the device or home.Graphene’s strength and light weight lend themselves to the production of goods and parts typically utilizing plastics and polymers, such as car and p lane parts. Composites of Graphene plus plastics or polymers could be industry standards for everything from bikes to wind turbines in a few short years.Graphene is also being studied as a potential material for 3D printing. 3D printing is a type of additive manufacturing process in which printers can rapidly produce three dimensional objects from a digital file. This process has been used to print objects as simple as lampshades and as complex as one-story house. Image credits: Flickr | CORE-Materials under Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic.

Graphene

Graphene There have been many exciting advancements in the field of materials science in the past quarter century. Perhaps none has generated the enthusiasm and excitement as the substance known as Graphene. This substance is pure carbon in the form of sheets one atom thick. Graphene is estimated to be 200 times stronger than steel, is as flexible as rubber, and conducts heat and electricity extremely efficiently. Further, because it is only an atom thick, it is nearly two-dimensional, imbuing it with many interesting light-related, and water-related properties.Graphene is not a naturally occurring substance. Even though it had been theorized by physicists since the 1960s, it was only produced for the first time in 2004. Back then, production methods made Graphene usage prohibitively expensive; however, over the past decade, academics and corporate researchers have made great strides in reducing production costs. And as those costs drop further with each passing year, Graphene is poised to re volutionize the fields of medicine, electronics, computing, and more. © Shutterstock.com | Anna KireievaIn this article we will look at 1) overview of materials and RD, 2) discovery of Graphene, 3) properties of Graphene, 4) benefits of Graphene, 5) Graphene production, 6) commercial usage of Graphene, and 7) current potential applications of Graphene.OVERVIEW OF MATERIALS AND RDWhile Graphene may have garnered considerable public interest, it remains to be seen exactly how much impact it will have. And each day, physicists and chemists are delving deeper into the physical world, learning more and more about the building blocks of our world and how they may be harnessed to build new things.Notable developments and trendsShortly after Graphene’s discovery in 2004, the editorial team at Materials Today compiled a list of the top 10 breakthroughs in materials science in the past 50 years. Graphene was notably absent from the list, but present were some of the biggest areas of discovery and commercial interest, including:Carbon fiber reinforced plastic s â€" used in racecars, and bikes, among other applications;Materials for Li ion batteries â€" used in laptops and cellphones;Carbon nanotubes â€" few commercial applications currently, but these will likely play a central role in emerging nanotechnologies;Metamaterials â€" recent experiments involving these resulted in a prototype invisibility cloak.By 2013, however, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers noted Graphene production as number one of their top five trends in mechanical engineering, along with:Electric ink, which would allow people to “write” their own circuit boards;Multi-ferroics, which could significantly enhance data storage;Nano anodes, which could create rapidly rechargeable batteries; andNanotube threads, which could be used to eventually build a space elevator.Key players in materials RDBecause of their various applications, research in materials science is performed and funded by a diverse group of players. Many governments allocate research funding for innovations that have the potential to have tangible economic impact. Militaries have interests in many of these discoveries; for example, the U.S. Army has provided funding for the metamaterials experiments surrounding the invisibility cloak. Academics often lead the way in research, with breakthroughs often resulting from teams for researchers from disparate universities. Outside of governments, militaries, and institutions of higher education, much direct investment in materials science research comes from corporations.DISCOVERY OF GRAPHENEGraphene existed in theory in 1962, when chemist Hanns-Peter Boehm described it in a paper published in the Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry. But in 2003, Russian physicist Andre Geim, then studying at the University of Manchester, set about to produce it. He used scotch tape to pull up progressively thinner layers of graphite, and then dissolved the tape, which eventually left him with the first instances of Graphene. In 2004, Ge im and his research colleague Kostantin Novoselov, published an academic paper on the discovery, which has since become one of the most widely cited papers in the field of physics. For this work, he and Novoselov received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010.Graphene 200 times stronger than steel PROPERTIES OF GRAPHENEGraphene is a hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms bonded tightly together. Its sp2 hybridisation â€" a double bond between the carbon atoms, coupled with its especially thin atomic thickness, fuel its special properties. Its ability to conduct electricity and heat so effectively are believed to be a function of the carbon bonds being very small and strong. Being composed of singular carbon atoms, Graphene is also so thin as to be effectively two-dimensional, in addition to being extremely light weight. © Flickr | CORE-MaterialsBENEFITS OF GRAPHENEGraphene’s benefits are closely tied to its properties, which make it tremendously attractive as a raw material for the production of a wide variety of commercial goods. In short, Graphene’s major benefits are that it is highly conductive 200 times more conductive than silicon, and conducts heat very efficiently as well; thin â€" enough to be considered a 2D material; transparent; strong â€" approximately 200 times stronger than steel; light-weight; and flexible, while maintaining its strength and conductivity.What is Graphene[slideshare id=13776961doc=graphene-120727094303-phpapp01w=640h=330]GRAPHENE PRODUCTIONAs of 2014, Graphene is still a fairly expensive material to produce, though innovations in the production process have already reduced its price per cm. There are two main methods for producing Graphene: exfoliation and epitaxy.ExfoliationThe academic and commercial use of exfoliation, known as mechanical exfoliation, to prod uce Graphene is a refinement of the process Geim and Novoselov used to first produce it. It produces flakes of varying sizes (in powder form), which are considered natural Graphene, in volume. These readily have applications in polymer, paint, and lubricant production. There is also liquid-phase exfoliation, in which graphite is suspended in liquid and then exposed to high frequencies of sound to produce Graphene flakes.EpitaxyProducing Graphene through epitaxy (also known as chemical vapor deposition or CVD) involves heat treating a susbstrate, such as silicon carbide, nickel, copper or iridium in a gaseous atmosphere that reduces the substrate into Graphene. It produces a film of Graphene (considered synthetic Graphene), that is free of the impurities in natural Graphene, and lends itself readily to use as various electronic applications, and potentially even clothing. It is also the more expensive of the two methods.COMMERCIAL USAGE OF GRAPHENEFirms using GrapheneWhile Graphene i s still a relatively new material, many firms are racing to adopt it. These include, but are not limited to big name electronics brands, such as Samsung, IBM, Nokia, Google, SanDisk and Apple, who are looking for ways to incorporate it in their products. In 2013, a UK intellectual patent report noted that Samsung led all firms in Graphene-related patents with 405 worldwide. Given the growing market for the material graphite company Graftech International; deposition technology company Aixatron; UK-based Applied Graphene Technologies and more, are rapidly scaling up their research and production of Graphene to meet demand.Challenges of using GrapheneThe biggest challenge to the commercial usage of Graphene is the production cost. As of 2013, some vendors were charging as much as $60 per square inch, according to a recent Forbes article. This makes the integration of the material into electronics cost prohibitive. The manufacturing processes themselves are nascent, and, while they can reliably produce Graphene, they are in need of further refinement to bring the price point down. Another significant challenge is the fact that Graphene is such a good conductor that it cannot be switched off. It lacks what is known as a band-gap, which means that it cannot be adopted into electrical systems; however, recent research has seen promising developments addressing that problem.Projected growth of the Graphene marketHowever, most experts agree that Graphene has enormous upside potential. Not only are firms and universities racing to procure patents, but Graphene’s wide-range of potential applications ensure that demand will continue to grow. Research and Markets’ October 2013 “Global Graphene Market report” forecasts that the compound annual growth rate for Graphene is 60.4% over the period 2012 to 2016. This is driven primarily by massive RD expenditures from major firms like Samsung and IBM, as well as Graphene’s own attributes. In 2013, the European Union an nounced its plans to fund Graphene research that drives innovation and job growth over the next decade to the tune of €1 billion.CURRENT POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF GRAPHENEThe enthusiasm of corporate and academic researchers is understandable. Graphenes current and potential applications are astounding and could revolutionize many products, markets and fields. These include:MedicineApplications include the development of bioelectric sensors and bio imaging devices, drug and gene delivery, more effective powerful disinfectants, and DNA sequencing â€" pending safety and clinic trials, of course. Artificial implants are also being explored, that would be connected directly to your neural system, harnessing Graphene’s conductive properties. Graphene could also be used to produce more effective spinal surgical equipment.ComputingGraphene can be used to radically improve the processing power of computer chips. In January of 2014, IBM announced that they had created a Graphene chip 10, 000 times faster than standard chips. This was an analog chip, not a digital one, due to Graphene’s band gap. But future RD will likely bring us computers with Graphene â€"based CPUs that are more powerful than our current devices by several orders of magnitude, and that consume less energy.Electronics Graphene enthusiasts have long been touting Graphene’s potential to replace silicon in common electric circuitry but the band gap remains the challenge. However, Graphene’s transparency and flexibility will undoubtedly eventually transform the field of electronics. Scientists have been experimenting with quick charging batteries, high-quality headphones, flexible electronics, more capable photo-sensors, and virtually unbreakable touch screens, among other applications. The integration of Graphene into the field of optical electronics could lead to the eventual development of updatable e-paper, among other exciting new breakthroughs.Water purificationGraphene filters water and practically nothing else, making it perhaps the most effective water filtration material available. Lockheed Martin has a Graphene water filter in development, which they claim will reduce the energy costs of desalination plants by 99% but it is not yet on the market. Graphene production remains a challenge, but Graphene oxide, which is easier to produce, has similar water-related properties and is much easier and cheaper to produce. This could not only play a significant role in increasing the amount of potable drinking water worldwide (especially in developing countries), but could also have a tremendous effect on alcohol distillation methods.Waterproofing materialsWhile Graphene is an extremely efficient water filter, researchers at Vanderbilt University have found ways to apply it to other materials in ways that cause those materials to become either superabsorbent or super repellent. This has tremendous commercial potential when you consider waterproof materials, electronics, and buildings. Nokia is already working on developing a waterproof smartphone.Energy storageGraphene’s ability to conduct heat and electricity extremely effectively lend it to the development of more rapidly-charging batteries. Prototype Graphene smartphone batteries in development at UCLA and elsewhere cha rge fully in mere seconds. Graphene-based super capacitors are being explored for eventual usage in cellphones and other portable devices.Another application is in the production of more proficient photovoltaic cells, which could be used in clothing, and is of particular interest to firms developing wearable tech, such as Wearable Solar. Even the U.S. military is looking into photovoltaics to power military equipment in the field. As Graphene research and development continues, it will doubtlessly be integrated into commercial and military photovoltaic production.Other applicationsGraphene’s incorporation into other materials, such as paint, plastic, and polymer production, is being explored. A Grapheneâ€"based paint, applied to a device or a house for example, could conceivably also store solar energy, powering the device or home.Graphene’s strength and light weight lend themselves to the production of goods and parts typically utilizing plastics and polymers, such as car and p lane parts. Composites of Graphene plus plastics or polymers could be industry standards for everything from bikes to wind turbines in a few short years.Graphene is also being studied as a potential material for 3D printing. 3D printing is a type of additive manufacturing process in which printers can rapidly produce three dimensional objects from a digital file. This process has been used to print objects as simple as lampshades and as complex as one-story house. Image credits: Flickr | CORE-Materials under Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic.

Hamlet and The Great Gatsby - 1134 Words

No two human beings that have ever inhabited the earth were, are, or will ever be alike. Every individual possesses his or her own looks, qualities, morals, personality, and much more. Comparing two characters from arguably, two of the greatest stories ever written, is quite a feat to accomplish. One could already relate the two main protagonists of Hamlet and The Great Gatsby just by looking at the titles of the novels! Hamlet and Jay Gatsby are two characters, who can easily be overanalyzed without truly researching into their own stories and unveiling just who these two gentlemen are, for they are enigmas, and can be scrutinized into being more similar than one may think. Hamlet and The Great Gatsby each have stories within stories within stories. Characters in both synopses are somehow related to one another. In Hamlet, when King Hamlet dies, Claudius â€Å"inherits† the throne, because he gets married to Gertrude. He is not just another man involved with the royal court, but rather he is actually related, being King Hamlet’s brother. Another example is when young Fortinbras of Norway should just be considered another king of another nation in Europe and has no relations to Denmark or any rulers, courts, or people in Hamlet. However, young Fortinbras must become involved with Denmark, because after all, it was the late King Hamlet who killed his father, Fortinbras, and so naturally, he feels the need to revenge his father’s death. In The Great Gatsby, the narrator, Nick isShow MoreRelatedThe Great Gatsby vs. Hamlet1514 Words   |  7 Pagesthe novel The Great Gatsby, love is shown between many different characters in different ways. The reader experiences love at its best and worst. We see relationships flourish, rekindle and end between the different characters. The most controversial relationship is the relationship between Daisy and Tom. Through infidelity, and mistrust, tragedy occurs. Other characters become associated with their marital problems, showing different kinds of love and relationships. In the play Hamlet, the readerRead MoreCompare the Great Gatsby and Hamlet2641 Words   |  11 PagesMelody Akinduro ENG4U Ms.Jackson 8th of January 2012. The Journal Of The Great Gatsby JOURNAL ONE The great Gatsby book started with a man telling us his father advised him never to criticize anyone , he said his father told him he should remember that all this people in this world havent had the advantages that youve had and his father thought him how to be reserved. He also have good manners and a well honourable character. Nick just graduated from yale university and heRead MoreTragedy: Shakespeares Hamlet and Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby1007 Words   |  5 PagesIn the play Hamlet by William Shakespeare and the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, the objective is to divulge the quintessence of humanity. Although the protagonists in both works of literature have drastically different journeys that lead to climactic endings, the use of plot is to demonstrate that the essence of mankind is ultimately a tragedy if great care is not taken. Both Hamlet and Jay Gatsby are unable to focus on the reality of the situation, and rather waste valuable timeRead MoreEssay on Ha mlet and Gatsby Comparison1114 Words   |  5 PagesIn the novel  The Great Gatsby, Jay Gatsbys longing for Daisy Buchanan leads him to his own downfall. Similarly in the novel  Hamlet, Hamlets extreme love for his father and his hatred towards his mother play a major role in his tragedy. In these works, there are a number of motivating factors that contribute to the downfall of the main characters- obsession, hatred, and the wanting to be accepted – but ultimately it is love that leads to the demise of Gatsby and Hamlet. Hamlet loved his fatherRead MoreGatsby and Hamlet Essays2219 Words   |  9 PagesExamining Hamlet and The Great Gatsby 1/9/13 According to Roger Lewis, â€Å"The acquisition of money and love are both part of the same dream, the will to return to the quintessential unity that exists only at birth and at death† (41). In both William Shakespeares play, Hamlet, and F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, The Great Gatsby, the protagonists are willing to sacrifice all that they have in order to achieve their unrealistic objectives and ambitions, resulting in their tragic demises. While thereRead More Comparing Fitzgeralds Great Gatsby and Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock1134 Words   |  5 PagesFitzgeralds Great Gatsby and Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock   Ã‚   The Roaring Twenties bring to mind a generation of endless partying, which reflected very little of the morals of the generations preceding it. The world, for that generation, was fast-paced and thoroughly material, crowded with bizarre and colorful characters like David Belasco and Arnold Rothstein. Inspired by this eras spiritually exhausted people (Brians), F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby and T. S. Read MoreHow Is Oedipus A Tragic Hero831 Words   |  4 Pagesstated that â€Å"a man doesn’t become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall,† when describing a tragic hero. Throughout history, there have been many literary tragic heroes: Hamlet from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Romeo from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, and even Jay Gatsby from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. Often times, when discussing tragic heroes, the Theban tragedy of Oedipus Rex and his family is brought up. The tragic hero, Oedipus Rex was t he heir to the throne of Thebes who wasRead MoreAnalysis Of F. Scott Fitzgerald s The Great Gatsby 1665 Words   |  7 Pagesmodernism as framework, F. Scott Fitzgerald, T.S. Elliot, and George Bernard Shaw have all created literary works that marked the new and unorthodox ways of viewing and interacting with the world with the beginning of the twentieth century. The Great Gatsby, The Love Song of J. A. Prufrock, The Wasteland, and Pygmalion portrayed the rejection of principles for religion, tradition, and morality in order to progress into their ever changing societies as an unpleasant reaction to the preceding VictorianRead MoreTragic Hero1598 Words   |  7 PagesStrife from Final Fantasy VII †¢ Creon from Antigone by Sophocles †¢ Eddie, from Arthur Miller s A View from the Bridge †¢ Ethan Frome from Edith Wharton s Ethan Frome †¢ Hamlet from Shakespeare s Hamlet †¢ Jack Bauer from the television series 24 †¢ James Gatz (Jay Gatsby) from The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald †¢ JC Denton from the PC game Deus Ex †¢ John-117 from the Halo video games †¢ Michael Corleone, from The Godfather books (by Mario Puzo) and filmsRead MoreComparative Essay- the Great Gatsby4190 Words   |  17 PagesBehind every great man lies a great women. In some cases the women herself may not always be good or ideal according to society. Nevertheless it seems to add character to the man,and also influences his actions and maybe even his morals. In Shakespearean literature,Shakespeare tends to use people to develop certain characters throughout the play. In Romeo and Juliet, Juliet is the person with the most influence on Romeo. This influence allows him to develop as a character and also helps develop

Eastern Mennonite University Admissions Tuition More

Different Sociological Perspectives - 1915 Words

Critically Analyse and Evalute The Different Sociological Perspectives On The Types of Family And Households In Britain. Evaluate Their Functions And Roles. To What Extent Do They Take Into Account The Diversity of Family Types In Britain? In this essay I will be looking at the different sociological theories as they relate to the family household, functions and roles. The socialists include The Functionalist , The Marxist, The Feminists, The New Rights and The Post Modernisms. There is an array of different family types. These include the nuclear family, reconstituted family/step family, single parent family, cultural family, and even more so in the modern times an evolution of different and alternative family types are getting more†¦show more content†¦The expression for the instrumental and expressive roles isn’t as valid when you apply them into the roles of the sexes, as now with the increase of different family types the roles can be reversed or one parent could provide the instrumental and expressive role. Marxists do not view the family as acting in the interest of society as a whole but more in the form of a superstructure that benefits the capitalist system. â€Å"Marxist see the family within the framework of a capitalist society, which is based on private property, driven by profit and is riddled with conflict between social classes with opposing interest†. (Browne pg 123) According to the Marxists the industrial aspects and the reproduction of people and generations contributes to the system by them working to maintain the economic system. This view on the family fails to take into account the sociological benefits a family can have outside of the industrial perspective. Brown (n.d) states that Engles, an early Marxists, believed that the monogamous practice of the nuclear family guarantees the paternity of the children, therefore ensuring that private property was passed down to the right people. There is also the perception that women married for material gain as, like the functionalists, they believed men should be the breadwinners and women should stayShow MoreRelatedDifferent Cultures From A Sociological Perspective1458 Words   |  6 Pagesthat are occurring in my own life and how relationships in being made in t he future will be affected will be changed because of this. This reflective paper will focus on the various differences in cultures from a sociological perspective, and provide examples from my own life on how different cultures and social groups alike can change the actions and feelings of a person, whether it be conscious or not. Socialization is a very important and critical aspect of the life course. The agents of socializationRead MoreSoc 101-Family Through Different Sociological Perspectives2143 Words   |  9 PagesRunning Head: FAMILY THROUGH DIFFERENT SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Family Through Different Sociological Perspectives Stephani Marlow SOC 101 Instructor Marian Spaid-Ross Jan 15th, 2012 All families are unique. A few decades ago, the most common type of family was the mother and father living with their unmarried children. Today, families are vastly different including more single-parent households than ever before, stepfamilies, and adopted families, and grandparents raising their grandchildrenRead MoreMerit 2 – Use different sociological perspectives to discuss patterns and trends of health and illness in two different social groups.1037 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Merit 2 – Use different sociological perspectives to discuss patterns and trends of health and illness in two different social groups. Distinction 1 - Evaluate different sociological explanations for patterns and trends of health and illness in two different social groups. There are many different factors that can increase your chance of becoming ill and dying. The different factors are social class, gender, age and ethnicity. The different social groups I will look at are social class and genderRead MoreSociological Perspective On The And Mate Selection1597 Words   |  7 Pagespossesses strong sociological perspective however would argue that the decision of marriage is largely influenced by factors from the world around them. More specifically, sociological perspective is the point of view that examines how institutions such as the government or mass media, cultural norms and beliefs, and social hierarchies such as race or ethnicity influence the lives of individuals (Mills 2013:3-4). It can also be explained as the opposite of an individualistic perspective, which is theRead MoreEssay on The Sociological Imagination1389 Words   |  6 PagesMy personal condensed definition of â€Å"the sociological imagination† is that it is the idea one s hould be aware of the societal structures around themselves, and how those structures can influence a person and vice-versa. In addition, I think that having a â€Å"sociological imagination† also involves a deep appreciation for the importance of society and culture. Consequently, for a person that has completed a basic introduction to sociology college course and actually paid attention, I would hope thatRead MoreScociological1136 Words   |  5 PagesMajor Sociological Paradigms There are three sociological perspectives that shape the structure of society as a whole. Functionalist perspective, symbolic interactionism and conflict theory. Sociologists develop these theories to explain social phenomena. In this essay I will explain the origins and evolution of the three main sociological perspectives and listing the sociologists that made major contributions to these disciplines. â€Å"The functionalist perspective is a sociological approachRead MoreThe Sociological Imagination, By C. Wright Mills799 Words   |  4 Pages The sociological imagination, a concept used by C. Wright Mills, is essentially the ability to perceive a situation or act in a much larger social context as well as examining the situation or act from many perspectives. In particular, it plays a paramount role in Donna Gaines Teenage Wasteland. It is a tragic story of 4 teens who together, committed suicide. The teens were deemed as â€Å"dropouts, druggies† [Teenage Wasteland 8.2] by newspapers and were still treated with disdain even after theirRead MoreReaction Paper675 Words   |  3 Pagesin the field of Sociology each person is going to approach topics in a different manner. Not everyone is going to have the exact same view on a particular subject. There are however, three major categories in which people might choose to approach topics. The approaches are known as sociolog ical perspectives and are the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives. These perspectives name other ways in which different people choose to analyze a subject, and how they look at a society asRead MoreEssay on what is the sociological perspective (imagination)691 Words   |  3 PagesQuestion 1: What is the sociological perspective? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;What is the nature of the social sciences? This is the question that began the study of society, first performed by C. Wright Mills in his development of the idea of the sociological imagination. There are many different aspects to the sociological perspective. Merriam-Webster dictionary defines perspective as â€Å"the capacity to view things in their true relations or relative importance†Read MoreSociology Paper The Other Wes Moore 1356 Words   |  6 Pages 2010, front cover). The Other Wes Moore is about two guys with the same name but end up going down totally different paths in life, hence the quote. In this paper it will discuss the novel, The Other Wes Moore, describe their social location, and describe the sociological perspectives used in sociology and analyze excerpts from the book using each of the three sociological perspectives. Social location is the combination of social factors which locate someone in society (Henslin,2013, pg.

Portfolio Personal Ethical Framework

Question: Discuss about thePortfolio for Personal Ethical Framework. Answer: Task: ICT Ethical Framework The ethics play an important role in forming a good role in any professional career. The ICT professionals are people who managed the information system for various organizations. Ethics helps in all aspects of the ICT professional field such as communication, working ethics and values. ICT professional: The Australian code of ethics is a series of rules and regulations for good ICT professional. The code of ethics would serve for abiding by the rules of Australian computer society for becoming a good ICT professional engineer. The code of ethics is: I will serve for my clients, employers, employees students, and communitys interest. I will be honest, competent, and diligent for my employers and clients. I will work tirelessly for enhancing my skills and knowledge in the area of my expertise. I will promote the use of ICT professional code of conduct within my organization. Work ethic and values: The working ethic and values would help in forming an eccentric and effective professionalism in ICT operations. Work ethic: The operations of ICT professional must abide by the rules of ACS code of conduct for ICT professionals. Honesty and hard work are the most important ethical qualities of ICT professionals. It would help us to form a customer friendly and reliable environment in the organization. Values of Importance: In an ICT profession, the most important values are enabling personalized learning, forming a greater involvement from the community, support the economic growth of the organization, and enhance the co-operation and teamwork approach in working habit. Communication with colleagues: The communication plays an important role in for communicating ideas of the organization to the stakeholders. Our main function for following ethics while communicating in the organization is conveying a clear and meaningful message to others without being offensive and unprofessional. Good ethical communication would result in dealing with the detrimental effects of unsatisfied workforce. Ethics in business communication has helped in increasing the employee satisfaction and hence has improved the overall productivity of the organization. Ethics is very important for making sure that the information transferred provides convenience for understanding in the organization. Diversity in the workplace: Diversity is important in the operations of the business organizations. The workplace operations can be improved by the use of diversified thinking and reasoning. It would provide us with the chances of the more sceptical thinking and reasoning. Diversified thinking had helped our organization for forming mutual respect and conflict resolution. Diversified thinking would help increasing the exposure of the chances in business operations. It is particular important for developing new technologies and implementing them in our organization. Hence I can conclude that the ethical framework is crucial for ICT professional development and activity. The ethical code of ICT professional has helped in forming an alliance of technological development with the professional operations of the business. Ethics is important for the development of effective communication channel and working culture in the organization. Bibliography Hashim, J., 2015. Information communication technology (ICT) adoption among SME owners in Malaysia.International Journal of Business and Information,2(2). Lin, J. and Chen, X., 2013. The Role of Large Enterprises and SME in the Process of Technological Innovation-----Based on Empirical Analysis of Technological Diversification and Technological Convergence of China's ICT Industry.Journal of Convergence Information Technology,8(5). Pimple, K.D., Searing, D.R., Jones, C., Seelman, K.D., Miller, K.W. and Shilton, K., 2014, May. Ethics and pervasive ICT: panel. InProceedings of the IEEE 2014 International Symposium on Ethics in Engineering, Science, and Technology(p. 66). IEEE Press. Stahl, B.C., Eden, G., Jirotka, M. and Coeckelbergh, M., 2014. From computer ethics to responsible research and innovation in ICT: The transition of reference discourses informing ethics-related research in information systems.Information Management,51(6), pp.810-818.

Best Practices Manual for Supervisors Essay Example

Best Practices Manual for Supervisors Paper The term ‘supervisor’ refers to a person who assigns work to subordinates and oversees their activities and performance. In management the first line managers at operating level are called ‘supervisors’ because it is the primary duty of first line managers to supervise the employees engaged in the basic operations (also called operating workforce) (Ahuja, 2005, p.225). Supervision In management, the term ‘supervision’ means overseeing the subordinates at work by their superiors. It is the function of leading, co-coordinating and directing the work of others to accomplish designated objectives. It refers to the direct and immediate guidance and control of subordinates in the performance of their task (Sharma, 204, p.110). ROLE OF SUPERVISOR IN AN ORGANIZATION We will write a custom essay sample on Best Practices Manual for Supervisors specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Best Practices Manual for Supervisors specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Best Practices Manual for Supervisors specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The role of a supervisor in an organization has been shown below: Fig. Role of Supervisor (Sharma, 204, p.111) (a) As Mediator- Supervisor acts as a mediator between higher-level management and the workers. (b) As Medium of Communication – supervisor acts as a medium of communication between higher-level managers and workers. He explains management policies to the workers and conveys the workers’ attitudes, opinions, grievances and problems to higher-level management (Silbiger, p.103). In other words, he communicates (i) To the workers what the management expects from them and (ii) To the management what the workers want. Thus, supervisor bridges the gap between the expectations of management and demands of operatives and workers. (c) As Convertor – Supervisor acts as a convertor in the sense that he occupies such a key position which turns plans and policies into actual results through the efforts of workers. (d) As Inspirer – supervisor acts as an inspirer in the sense that he inspires workers to cooperate and contribute to the best of their capability for the achievement of organizational objectives. (e) As Leader – Supervisor acts as a leader in the sense that he influences the workers to work with team spirit for the achievement of organizational objectives. He also provides a cohesive force, which holds the group intact and develops a spirit of cooperation and discipline among the employees. (f) As Guide and Friend – Supervisor acts as a guide and friend in the sense that he educates and trains the workers, creates friendly environment and solves the disputes of the workers. In this way, he ensures team spirit, co-operation and discipline amongst the members (Sharma, 2004, p.115) Thus, the Supervisor is expected to secure not only the efficiency of operations but also the team spirit, co-operation and discipline among the employees. DETERMINING EFFECTIVE ORIENTATION AND TRAINING METHODS †¢ Training and Development Training is usually taken to mean providing employees with knowledge or specific job skills to satisfy immediate job or organizational needs. This could range from assembly workers learning new techniques to enable them to increase output, to managers learning how to better manage their time. (Yvonne, 1999, p.120) Development usually refers to preparing employees for longer-term opportunities. It encompasses both personal and organizational needs and has a more general focus. Supervisor provides training and development in an organization usually following four steps: (a) Identifying employees training and development needs; (b) Developing a training plan for each individual; (c) Selecting or designing or conducting training activities; (d) Evaluating the results. Supervisor identifies training needs in an organization by following three main methods: i. New employees – training is required immediately in order for the employees to perform the work satisfactorily. ii. Performance appraisals – an employee’s output may indicate that further training is required, or he or she may request training in a specific area. iii. Future needs – employees are trained in anticipation of future needs (often involving the use of technology). Care must be taken by the supervisor to ensure that training will solve a specific problem. Sometimes other options may be more effective, such as: changing the job, or some aspect of it; changing the salary or wage structure; or introducing flexible working hours Sometimes various types of training activity are used simply to motivate employees. (Yvonne,1999, p.125) Supervisor in some organizations develop formal training plans for their employees. Such training plans tend to be more specific for people in the lower levels of the organization, and more general for people at higher levels. Sometimes such training is part of the career development for certain individuals. †¢ Improving The Work Environment People whose work is highly specialized, repetitive and routine may become dissatisfied with their job. This dissatisfaction often shows itself by reduced output, increased absenteeism and high staff turnover. This very quickly reduces effectiveness of a work area, and influences the effectiveness of the whole organization. A number of approaches have been developed to try to overcome this problem.

How to Get Copies of US Naturalization and Citizenship Records

How to Get Copies of US Naturalization and Citizenship Records U.S. naturalization records document the process whereby an individual born in another country (an alien)  is granted citizenship in the United States. Although the details and requirements have changed over the years, the naturalization process generally consists of three major steps: 1) the filing of a declaration of intent or first papers, and 2) the petition for naturalization or second papers or final papers, and 3) the granting of citizenship or certificate of naturalization. Location:  Naturalization records are available for all U.S. states and territories. Time Period:  March 1790 to the present What Can I Learn From Naturalization Records? The Naturalization Act of 1906 required naturalization courts to begin using standard naturalization forms for the first time and the newly created  Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization  to begin keeping duplicate copies of all naturalization records. Post-1906 naturalization records are generally the most useful for genealogists. Prior to 1906, naturalization documents were not standardized and the earliest naturalization records often include little information beyond the individuals name, location, arrival year, and country of origin. U.S. Naturalization Records from 27 September 1906 - 31 March 1956:Beginning 27 September 1906, naturalization courts across the U.S. were required to forward duplicate copies of Declarations of Intention, Petitions for Naturalization, and Certificates of Naturalization to the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) in Washington, D.C. Between 27 September 1906 and 31 March 1956, the Federal Naturalization Service filed these copies together in packets known as C-Files. Information that you might expect to find in post-1906 U.S. C-Files includes: name of applicantcurrent addressoccupationbirthplace or nationalitybirth date or agemarital statusname, age, and birthplace of spousenames, ages, and birthplaces of childrendate and port of emigration (departure)date and port of immigration (arrival)name of ship or mode of entrytown or court where the naturalization occurrednames, addresses, and occupations of witnessesphysical description and photo of immigrantimmigrants signatureadditional documentation such as evidence of a name change Pre-1906 U.S. Naturalization RecordsPrior to 1906, any court of record- municipal, county, district, state, or Federal court- could grant U.S. citizenship. Information  included on pre-1906 naturalization records varies widely from state to state since no federal standards existed at the time. Most pre-1906 US naturalization records document at least the immigrants name, country of origin, arrival date, and port of arrival. ** See U.S. Naturalization Citizenship Records for an in-depth tutorial on the naturalization process in the United States, including the types of records which were generated, and exceptions to the naturalization rule for married women and minor children. Where Can I Find Naturalization Records? Depending upon the location and time period of the naturalization, naturalization records may be located at the local or county court, in a state or regional archives facility, at the National Archives, or through U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. Some naturalization indexes and digitized copies of original naturalization records are available online.

Individual Project Drugs and Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Individual Project Drugs and Crime - Essay Example Mental functioning becomes clouded due to the depression of the central nervous system. Other effects included slowed and slurred speech, slow gait, constricted pupils, droopy eyelids, impaired night vision, vomiting, and constipation. surge of pleasure that rapidly follows administration of some drugs. Long term effects: Long-term effects of heroin appear after repeated use for some period of time. Chronic users may develop collapsed veins, infection of the heart lining and valves, abscesses, cellulites, and liver disease .Pulmonary complications, including various types of pneumonia, may result from the poor health condition of the abuser, as well as from heroin's depressing effects on respiration. In addition to the effects of the drug itself, street heroin may have additives that do not really dissolve and result in clogging the blood vessels that lead to the lungs, liver, kidneys, or brain. (www.drugsfree.com) Two cases of crimes due to consumption of LSD can be focused. First, the case of Stephen Kessler stands out because of the style and magnitude of the headlines in April 1967, which declared him a "Mad LSD Slayer" and "LSD Killer" because he reportedly said to the police as he was being arrested: "Man, I've been flying for three days on LSD." Although it was later reported that Kessler had last taken LSD more than a month before the killings and had actually been on "three quarts of lab alcohol" and "one-and-a-half grains of pentobarbital", this data was trumpeted with somewhat less fanfare. The second major LSD-related crime that splashed across televisions, newspapers, and magazines was that of the murderous cult of personality around Charles Manson. When several members of the group were... Long-term effects of heroin appear after repeated use for some period of time. Chronic users may develop collapsed veins, infection of the heart lining and valves, abscesses, cellulites, and liver disease .Pulmonary complications, including various types of pneumonia, may result from the poor health condition of the abuser, as well as from heroin's depressing effects on respiration. In addition to the effects of the drug itself, street heroin may have additives that do not really dissolve and result in clogging the blood vessels that lead to the lungs, liver, kidneys, or brain. Two cases of crimes due to consumption of LSD can be focused. First, the case of Stephen Kessler stands out because of the style and magnitude of the headlines in April 1967, which declared him a "Mad LSD Slayer" and "LSD Killer" because he reportedly said to the police as he was being arrested: "Man, I've been flying for three days on LSD." Although it was later reported that Kessler had last taken LSD more than a month before the killings and had actually been on "three quarts of lab alcohol" and "one-and-a-half grains of pentobarbital", this data was trumpeted with somewhat less fanfare. The second major LSD-related crime that splashed across televisions, newspapers, and magazines was that of the murderous cult of personality around Charles Manson. When several members of the group were indicted for high profile murders in 1969, it was big national news. The media carried extensive mentions of the use of LSD, Datura, and other drugs by the members of the â€Å"Manson Family†. Kasabian spent eighteen days on the witness stand during which Manson’s attorney repeatedly returned to questions about her LSD use, trying to depict her as a person who could not tell fact from fantasy.

God's Omniscience and Human Free Will - Contradiction Essay

God's Omniscience and Human Free Will - Contradiction - Essay Example Most of the solutions or arguments are aimed at working around the problem rather than resolving it. I believe that there is no way to solve this conflict without denying either God’s omniscience or the existence of free will. In this essay I argue and attempt to prove that God’s omniscience and human free will are not compatible with each other. Omniscience in the simplest form is defined as the knowledge of everything, infinite or complete knowledge. That is, an omniscient God knows and has knowledge of everything, including what is going to happen in the future1. Human free will on the other hand is defined as the ability, power or force of a person to choose what or what not to do. In a more religious sense it is the ability or power to choose or turn away from good or evil2. Hence, definition of omniscient God implies an all knowing God meaning that God knows what is going to happen in the future. If God already knows what we are going to do in the future, it means that our actions are already predetermined and we have no control over the actions that we are going to take in the future. ... God is omniscient or humans have free will, both cannot be possible. Now let’s consider some of the solutions offered to solve the above conflict and see if it actually attempts to prove the compatibility of the two ideas or not. One of the major arguments made by those supporting omniscient God and human free will is that God’s foreknowledge in no way restricts human free will. That is, foreknowledge does not imply causality. Following analogy is used to support the claim: Sun rises tomorrow and knowing this does not cause the sun to rise. Knowing ahead of time does not restrict or cause an event to occur. Similarly, God’s foreknowledge of what we are going to do does not affect our free will to choose what we are going to do. It just means that God happens to know ahead of time what we are going to choose freely. God does not affect our freedom to choose but he simply knows ahead of time that what we are going to choose3. For this argument to work the concept o f time as we know it must be discarded. God is not restricted by the concept of time as we do. To God past, present and future exists at once, i.e, God exists outside of time. The above argument does not make logical sense and can be termed invalid. Let’s assume that humans have free will and are free to choose what they want to do. If an option A is chosen then by the earlier argument God would have known that option A would be chosen ahead of time. If instead of option A, due to free will, option B is chosen then the argument would be that this is what would have been known4. So either way the conclusion that can be drawn is that the future is determined. Irrespective of causing the event to occur or not, the future remains determined in the analogy used. Knowing that the sun

Handling, Storage and Disposal of Samples

Handling, Storage and Disposal of Samples Expectations of a Health Care Professional In the histology laboratory all specimens arrive fixed in 10% buffered formalin. In the laboratory, the specimen and the request form are labeled with the same lab number. The specimens are left in the same order the lab number is given and processed. Safety gloves and an apron are worn when processing the specimen. Unfixed specimens received in a plane container are fixed in 10% formalin which is commercially prepared and left for one day to process. This is done if the specimen requires fixation. Certain specimens are an exception to this rule. Lymph nodes are wrapped in gauze when lymphoma is suspected, skin sections for Immunofluorescence due to Pemphigus vulgaris are suspended in saline solution, and frozen sections are not fixed since fresh tissue is sectioned for microscopic examination. Whether the result has been reported or not determines which samples are disposed and stored if the result has been reported or not: After the samples are processed the pieces of the sample that were not inserted in the cassette are placed back inside the respective container. The fixed specimen in the container is refrigerated until the result is reported (figure1). 3 weeks after reporting the result a disposal list is created and the specimens to be disposed are packed inside boxes, labeled and then sent for incineration. Samples such as fetus are kept for burial. Empty containers are left for a week and a half as a quality control and for human errors. In many cases the label on the container shows the type of specimen so the empty containers are left in case verification of type of specimen is required. Blocks and slides are stored permanently inside a storage room. All blocks and slides are carefully and methodically filed so they are available for records or for future reference. As years pass blocks remain unchanged but stains on the slide tend to fade so there is sample deterioration. After cutting, the blocks are placed in numerical order according to the year and placed inside boxes. The first and the last number of the blocks in each box are written on the boxes. All sides and top box are labeled and sealed with tape. Slides are filed in numerical order after the report is issued. Slides are placed in a slide box and the lab number of the first and last slide are written on the box. Effective self-management of time and workload The opening hours for the histology are from 6.00 am till 5.00 pm. The lab is open from Monday till Sunday and time shifts are available so the laboratory remains more open and more service is given to the public. The laboratory does not open during night shift because results in the histology laboratory are not considered urgent. Results must first be seen by the pathologist so no immediate results are required so processing is done during the day. Samples that are considered urgent In histology, specimens are not considered urgent because they have to be viewed by the pathologist results are issued. Frozen sections are considered urgent since the sample must be quickly processed so an intra-operative decision can be taken by the surgeon. Samples can also be considered urgent when a pathologist needs the results in a quick time, due to surgery scheduled on that day or the following day. Career-Long Self Directed Learning What is CPD? CPD stands for Continuing Professional Development, an ongoing free training programme in histopathology including histology and cytology (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). It is defined as â€Å"The systematic maintenance, improvement and broadening of knowledge and skills, and the development of personal qualities, necessary for the execution of professional and technical duties throughout the practitioner’s working life† (The Chartered Institution of Highways Transportation, 2011). This means that CPD allows the employer to improve and to widen knowledge, quality, competence and skills in his/her profession. What constitutes CPD activity? A CPD is constituted by meetings, short courses, conferences or workshops that are created to inform other members of stuff or even the public. Organization and participation are essential for a successful CPD. It must be transparent, accountable and visible (Fox Fox, 2004, p.182). CPD can be done: To present one’s own research report With the aid of websites, journals, posters, books and other printed media To show something encountered during work, that can be of interest to rest of the workers To make and encourage new procedures and changes Introduce a new course that will be of interesting to the public or workers How does the CPD scheme benefit Pathology employers? A CPD scheme enables the biomedical scientist to develop the necessary knowledge, attitudes, personal effectiveness and skills for his/her professional practice. The employer must identify his/her and their employer’s learning needs. In order to improve patient care the employer must be up to date on facts, new concepts and most importantly on opinion and consensus (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). The employer can record activity and document all learning achieved (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). All this is done not for only the present but also for future progression (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). What are the benefits to a biomedical scientist (the employee) participating in the CPD scheme? Keep up to date with current rapid and expanding knowledge (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Increases job satisfaction, productivity and quality of working life (Chen, Chang Yeh, 2006) Acquire new skills for safe and effective practice. This builds up confidence in the employee (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). Promote professional ideas and new initiatives, increasing job satisfaction (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). Documentation of all that is learned from the scheme is encouraged (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Benefit from quality control measures (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). Encourage reflective practice (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). Reduce risk of clinical isolation (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Prepare for new roles example managerial. Employers value employees that undergo continuous CPD since such employees show learning agility (Chen et al., 2006; Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Maintain a reputation of the biomedical possession and public assurance (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Where is the information relating to CPD displayed in Pathology? When a CPD meeting is going to be held all biomedical scientists are informed through an email. The email is sent to the principle to make sure that all the histology staff knows about the meeting. Vertical Audit Site of origin The trucut samples were taken from the right breast upper outer quadrant (Figure 2) Sample Taking and Description of sample The trucut biopsy is taken after a mammography showed a suspicious result. To diagnose, a trucut biopsy was performed. A trucut (core) biopsy is mostly done to sample tissues from a solid mass or calcium deposits, increasing sensitivity (Youk, Kim, Kim, Lee Oh, 2007). Very small masses or masses that are too deep are sampled using a guiding imaging technique. No scars are left after sampling. It has the advantage of being highly sensitive and specific (Sadler et al., 1994). The biopsy was performed at Mater Dei’s surgical operating theater (SOP) (in the Breast Clinic). The patient was given local anesthetic and left for a few minutes. A 16mm gauge core needle (figure 3) was then used to obtain the tissue samples. The tissues sampled contain tissues from the mass and normal healthy tissues from the breast. The sections sampled contain also provide more diagnostic information than mammography and fine needle aspiration. The samples are larger than FNA therefore results are more accurate (Kasraeian, Allison, Ahlmann, Fedenko Menendez, 2010). The clinician or nurse localised the mass and its boundaries and the mass was then immobilised. The needle was inserted through the skin into the lump and the tissue section was taken. To increase the chances of diagnosis 6 trucut specimens were taken. Their length varied from 9mm to 14 mm. The needle was then detached. The trucut specimens were then introduced into a container contain 10% buffered formalin. The container and the request form where received in the histology laboratory the following day. Specimen reception/numbering A courier brought the trucut specimen for histology processing into the histology laboratory. In the laboratory, the request form which comes together with the specimen was left for a day where registration and processing began. The following day, the receptionist used the HOE system to input data so they can be available only in the laboratory. The ID number of the patient was inputted followed by location the specimen was sampled example BOFFA, the name of the medical lab scientist, and the name of the pathologist/consultant. If available, the macro examination results were also included. A label containing the lab number, the letter on the cassette, the last two digits of the year, and the patient’ name and surname was prepared and printed. The label was prepared to label the slide after staining (in this case only one label was required). Specimen Registration The sample and its respective request form were both labeled with a barcode containing a specific laboratory number. The barcode was stuck on the top of the request form and at the back of the container (without covering any patient’s details). The laboratory number was also written with the aid of marker on top of the tap of the container. The request form was stamped at the top and at the bottom with the date in which it was received in the laboratory. The trucut specimen and the other histological specimens were left one after the other, according to the laboratory number. Specimen processing proceeded in this order. Specimen Processing 1. Cut-Up The trucut specimen was first processed in the laboratory at the cut-up laboratory. The name and surname of the patient and the lab number on the request form and on the specimen container were checked. The trucut biopsies in 10% buffered formalin were taken out from the container, using forceps, on the working bench. A macroscopic examination was performed on the 6 trucut biopsies obtained. Their length ranged in length from 9mm to 14mm. They were all embedded in one printed cassette labeled A1. Blue foam was also placed and the cassette was covered with a medal lid. It was then was placed in eosin with the other specimens. The trucut biopsies were then ready for further laboratory processing. After all specimens were cut, a histopathology worksheet was filled in. This included the case number of the patient, the number of tissues taken (6) , the tissue type (breast trucut), the number of blocks (A1), any comments such as left to fix (not applicable), the name of the pathologist who will examine the slides, and the name of the medical laboratory scientist (in this case who performed the cut up). 2. Tissue Processing (Impregnation) The biopsies were processed in an automated processing machine. This was performed in a closed system for trucut specimens using program A. It is important that the specimen is not larger than 3mm since it will not fit and cannot be cut afterwards. The closed system has 14 baths and it provides pressure, waving, bubbling and rotation to the tissues so the reagent can penetrate better. This is performed overnight, therefore the processor is programmed. When time for embedding is prolonged, the fixation time is prolonged to compensate. The tissues were first fixed in 10% buffered formalin so that the fixation was continued They were then dehydrated in 2 baths of 70% alcohol, in 1 bath 95% alcohol and then in 2 baths of absolute alcohol. The dehydrated sections were then moved into the chloroform and xylene. This step was done for clearing. Chloroform is a carcinogen and it affects the nervous system. The tissues were automatically moved in wax for tissue impregnation. This caused the tissues to harden. A temperature of less than 60oC was necessary because a higher temperature would have affected elasticity of the wax. Fumes go in a waste bottle and charcoal filter is present to filter leak. The tissues were now ready for embedding. 3. Embedding During embedding, the formalin fixed processed tissues are surrounded by wax so a solid paraffin block is obtained. This will enable the medical lab scientist to obtain thin sections from the block so that they can be stained and later viewed by the pathologist. The procedure involved was as follows: The cassette was taken from the processor to the warm compartment of the histocentre. The histocentre is an embedding center that facilitates paraffin embedding. It is equipped with a dispenser, specimen handling tank, warmed embedding moulds, warmed forceps wells and warm plate for orientation of the specimen in the melted paraffin. After checking the wax tank was properly filled, the cold plate and light were switched on. The cold plate helps in transferring of the melted paraffin. The tissue cassette was opened and the number on the labeled cassettes was checked with that on the worksheet entry. A suitable mould compartment corresponding to the size of the tissues in the cassette was chosen. The mould was filled with paraffin wax The tissue was placed at the bottom of the mould, correctly orientated. Incorrect orientation ruins the first section taken The trucuts were placed centrally aligned across long axis of the mould, and not placed at random. Adequate border of embedding medium must surround all sides of the tissue to give maximum cutting support. The mould placed in its cassette was placed on a cold plate and allowed to solidify. The block was scraped along a para trimmer to trim excess wax on surface. Tissues embedded must be perfectly flat to ensure that a complete section will be obtained. 4. Microtomy After the block was trimmed, thin sections were now cut using a microtome. The block was first trimmed to expose the area to be sectioned. A sharp non-rusted blade was used not to cause damage to the tissue by scoring. The microtome was cleaned from staples and sutures that remained to avoid damage of the blade. Microtomy was then started. The tightly screwed blade was checked and adjusted in the correct position. The micrometer gauge was set at a thickness of 18-22 µm. The block was placed inside the block holder of the microtome and secured. The block holder was in parallel to the edge of the blade so a straight ribbon of sections was obtained. The block holder was moved using the couae trimming device until the wax block was almost touching the edge of the blade. The fine trimming rotator device was when the block touched the edge of the blade and trimming of the block was started. Excess wax from the surface of the block was removed until the surface of the tissue was exposed. Debris due to coarse cutting was removed using a Camel hairbrush. The block was then placed on ice to cool giving the tissue and the wax similar consistency. Water absorbed by the tissue, slightly swelling it, so cutting is easier later on. If this does not occur sections tend to crease. The block was reattached to the microtome, leaving the left-hand rotator device. The micrometer gauge was then set at 3 µm. A series of sections forming a ribbon were cut and the first one was not used since it is usually thicker than 3 µm. 4 layers were taken. This means that the after the first section was achieved, the next few layers were ignored and then a second section was taken. The same was done for the third and fourth. This is done so that the pathologist can study many layers from the site taken so that diagnosis is more accurate. The appropriate ribbon section (for all the four sections obtained) was gently transferred into a water bath using forceps. The water bath is set a few degrees below the melting point of the wax. The sections were floated onto a glass slide containing 20% alcohol. The ribbon section was then released on the surface of a water bath (at a temperature less than that of melting point of wax i.e. 60oC. The sections were collected on an APES-coated glass slide. They were placed on near the other. Coated APES facilitates adhesion of the sections onto the glass slide. 4 slides were obtained (a slide for each layer taken). The number of the block was written on the glass slide using a diamond pen and placed on a slide rack. It was dried in an oven at about 60oC for 10 minute. 5. Staining Together with the other blocks from the other specimens the slides were dried and now ready for staining. The routine gold standard stain in histology is Haematoxylin and Eosin stain. This was done in an automated staining machine which followed the regressive method. This allowed overstaining of the tissues and removal excess dye by differentiation. The staining procedure was programmed as followed: The slides were left in the heating station so that all water is removed. The slides were dewaxed in a xylene for 4 minutes. This removed the surrounding wax from the tissues. They were then placed in xylene alcohol for 15 seconds. This started the gradual hydration process and prepared the tissues to be stained by haematoxylin dissolved in an aqueous solvent. The hydration process is followed by 2 baths of absolute alcohol (15 seconds each). The slides were then passed into four baths: 95% alcohol, 70% alcohol, 50% alcohol, and 30% alcohol (15 seconds each). They were then passed for 15 seconds in distilled water since haematoxylin stain is water based. The slides were then passed for 10 minutes in haematoxylin stain. The time inside the haematoxylin bath varies according to the properties of the stain. The prolonged use of the stain increases the time the slides pass in the bath. The slides were rinsed in two baths of distilled water, the first bath for 30 seconds and the second bath for 10 seconds. Differentiation then occurred in acid alcohol for 1 second. This allowed the nucleus to retain the stain and to decrease the pH (acidic) so colour changes to light purple. The slides were rinsed in distilled water for 15 seconds. Bluing occurred in tap water for 5 minutes. This raised the pH so sections became light blue. The slides were then passed into a bath containing distilled water for 15 seconds. The slides were passed in absolute alcohol for 15 minutes for dehydration and because this favours alcoholic eosin staining since it is alcohol based. Counterstaining was performed in a bath containing alcoholic eosin for 3.15 minutes. The time in alcoholic eosin varies according to the properties of the stain. The prolonged use of the stain increases the time the slides pass in the bath. Prolonging time allows the cytoplasm to take up the pink eosin stain. The slides were then dehydrated in four baths of acid alcohol, 15 seconds each. The slides were cleared in xylene alcohol for 15 seconds followed in 2 baths of xylene for 5 minutes each. This helps during mounting since DPX mountant is xylene based. The slides were left in the heating station so that all water is removed. The slides were taken out from the rack and mounted with DPX mountant. Quality Control: Two slides are stained with H E stain using the automated machine in the morning before starting routine staining. Errors in staining such as weak stains and contamination (example of eosin) can be detected so they can be solved. The 4 slides of the patient were therefore well stained since the machine passed QC on that day. Results: Nucleus: Blue Cytoplasm and other eosinophilic structures: Pale pink After processing, the number on the slides was checked with that of the cassette and the block. The slides were then labelled with their respective label. The cassette was placed on top of the slide to see if all the stained sections present on the block were sectioned. All the stained sections agreed with those on the block. Role of the Biomedical Scientist The role of the biomedical scientist is to perform all the above procedures. The medical lab scientists are divided into different sections throughout the histology laboratory: in the cut-up room and in the embedding and staining section of the laboratory (excluding immunohistochemistry laboratory). In addition, the biomedical scientist must also fill several worksheets. The initials of the biomedical lab scientists performing the cutup, macro-examination, LID and embedding are written in the histopathology worksheet. The MLS must monitor any changes example in reagents. Any injuries or misshapen occurring in the laboratory must be recorded. Pathologist Role/Result Reporting After staining, the pathologist viewed the slides under the microscope and performed a microscopic examination. The observed results were noted. The microscopic examination results were sent to the secretary who typed the result in the results form. The pathologist then read the results form for any errors and once the result was verified the pathologist authorised the result. Result Entering and Authorisation After the pathologist viewed the slides under the microscope he took the fully written request form to the secretary. The secretary separated the forms into different piles, according to the pathologist. The form was typed in a result form and printed as a result sheet. The written and the print result form were separated into 2 different racks. The report sheet was taken to the respective consultant/pathologist who reviewed the printed result sheet for any mistakes. This includes patient details, clinical details, and examination results. Once the pathologist verified the data written, he used the software to authorise the result. Once the pathologist authorised the result, this was available in the LIS of the cytology and histology laboratories. The CMI system allowed the results to be available to the wards. The result sheet was taken to the secretary where the result form was piled with other results forms according to the pathologist/consultant. Copies were made and sent to ward and patient. Result Issuing (Describe the results form) The results form contains the details of the patient, including the name and surname, address, date of birth, sex and the hospital number. The name of the clinician and the site from where trucut biopsy was taken (SOP) are included. The date the specimen was taken and the date and time it was received are also included. The lab number associated to the specimen is important to be included because besides identifying the patient it can be used for future reference. If the slides or block containing the sections are required they are labelled (including lab number) and stored and easily retrievable. The specimen type and site from where the biopsy was taken, the macroscopic examination and the microscopic examination are all included. The included, in this case â€Å"Benign breast parenchyma of the right breast†. The pathologist and the date and time the result was reported and authorised (by pathologist) and the date and time the result form was printed are also included. Benign Breast Parenchyma: The breast parenchyma forms part of the normal breast tissue. It was reported as benign during microscopy because of few scattered (not clustered) lobules seen in breast sections. Since no atypical features were observed, no special stains or immunohistochemistry staining (example ER or Her-2 stains) were required. It is ideal the patient undergoes regular breast screening. Sample Collection and Specialist Preparation The containers to process routine surgical specimens vary from small to large received in 10% buffered formalin. Very large containers are rare. The container used depends on the size of the specimens. Small specimens such as polyps, prostate scrapings, appendix, trucuts, and trephines are received in small containers containing 10% buffered formalin. Some specimens such as fetus vary in size such as fetus and colon so they received in larger specimens (medium when compared to small containers). Large specimens such as lung, breast, and colon are received in large containers containing 10% buffered formalin. Large specimens require more than one day to be cut. First the specimen is opened and left for an additional day or more for further fixation. The following are types of specimen the laboratory receives that require specialist preparation techniques and the actions taken: Trephine and Bone specimens: – Decalcification with EDTA or formic acid. EDTA is used example for bone marrow trephine and formic acid is used example on bone sternum for one day Figure 4 showing a femur bone undergoing decalcification in EDTA. Infective specimen example with HIV – Over fixation in formalin to kill infective cells* Lymph node –The time of fixation depends on the thickness of the specimen. More time the more the fixative is allowed to penetrate the lymph node.* It is left for two or three days depending on the thickness of the specimen. Over fixation will destroy the surface antigens causing artifacts and a false negative result during immunohistochemistry. Sural nerve: Sent from operation inside a gauze soaked with saline. The request from and case summary are required. The cut up laboratory gives the lab number and send the specimen to the immunohistochemistry laboratory. The tubular sural nerve is wet, and the two ends of the nerve are cut. One end is sent to a pathologist to get an idea of diagnosis and the centre part of the nerve and the other cut end are sent abroad. Muscle: This is received in saline and a lab number is given in the cut up laboratory and then sent to immunohistochemistry laboratory. It is frozen at -70oC and cut by a cryostat at -20oC. The thin sections are then stained with a series of special stains example Oil Red O and with immunohistochemistry stains example myosin. APES coated glass slides are used to prevent the tissue section from sliding off. Imprints: Example lymph node: A slide is pressed on the lymph node and the imprint is sent abroad. The lymph node is then worked normally in formalin. Imprints are used for genetic studies. Liver with no tumour: A series of special stains are performed: PAS – useful if there is a high glycogen content upon staining Reticulin Stain – useful in liver cirrhosis and liver fibrosis Masson’s Trichome Stain – Useful in liver fibrosis Iron Stain – useful for haemosiderosis, haemochromatosis Title: Frozen Sections Aim Performing a macroscopic examination by the pathologist Cut up of the specimen Obtaining sections at -17oC using a micrometer, inside a cryostat Staining the section/s by haematoxylin and eosin stain Performing microscopic examination of the stained section/s by the pathologist Introduction A frozen section is a specific type of biopsy performed during surgery so that a rapid diagnosis of the tissue extracted is made (Brender, Burke Glass, 2011). The tissue can be sectioned and stained in the laboratory for microscopic examination by the pathologist. The surgeon is given flexible intra-operative decision making according to the result given by the pathologist after the rapid processing (KarcioÄÅ ¸lu, 2005, p.121). Principle A surgery is booked and a biopsy is taken and sent to the laboratory. As soon as the fresh specimen arrives in the histology laboratory the pathologist and the selected biomedical scientists start processing the specimen. The pathologist performs a macroscopic examination on the specimen and the observed features are written down by the pathologist. The MLS then start cutting thin sections according to the specimen, using a microtome inside a cryostat at -17oC. The sections are then quickly stained with haematoxylin and eosin stain. In contrary to routine H E, the sections are not passed through xylene and dehydrated down to water. This is because the frozen sections are not embedded in paraffin wax prior staining. Since the stain is very fast there differentiation with acid alcohol is also not performed. After mounting the pathologist checks if the stained slide is satisfactory and after performs a microscopic examination. This lets the surgeon decide what to do next. Materials and Equipment required Cryostat, OCT medium, cryospray, Glass slides, cover slips, disposable pipettes, Procedure 1. Macro-examination The pathologist opens the container/s containing the specimen/s. A macro examination is performed on the specimen/s and the pathologist starts a description so that the medical lab scientist writes on the request form. The description includes the size dimension (length x width x height) in centimeters, the shape of the specimen and if it is soft or hard. The consultant suspects carcinoma and sampling is them performed. 2. Cutting the specimen The consultant cuts piece of the specimen that covers the whole area of the specimen. It is important the most suspicious is included in the segmented section so that the consultant can find and detect the tumour during microscopy. If required, multiple sections can be taken to make a diagnosis. The size cut depends on the size of the sample and tumour. More than one pieces of the specimen can be cut example: two sections from a liver (due to liver transplantation), and from a lymph node attached to the liver. 3. Cryostat The cut specimen/s is/are placed, with the aid of tweezers, in the center of a cryostat object disk containing OCT medium. The cryostat object disk with the tissue is placed on the cryobar (holder) inside the -17oC set cryostat. The tissue is left to settle so it gets cold and this is enhanced by using a cryospray. When the tissue solidifies it is placed onto an object disk holder. The machine is set at 5 µ on the control panel and the block is moved towards the edge of the blade. After making sure it is properly clamped trimming is started. The rotator on the right of the cryostat is turned. The section begins to curl as the block comes in contact with the blade. The section is held down slowly and gently with tweezers and cut until the surface of the tissue is visible. The cryostat is now quickly set at 30 µ (this is the thickness used for most of the specimens in histology). A good section is detached and taken onto a glass slide placed opposite of the block. As the tissue comes in contact with the glass slide it sticks onto it since it melts and adheres to it. The glass slide is immediately in the staining station found adjacent to the cryostat. Haematoxylin and eosin staining is performed. 4. Haematoxylin and Eosin Staining The glass slide with tissue section is f Handling, Storage and Disposal of Samples Handling, Storage and Disposal of Samples Expectations of a Health Care Professional In the histology laboratory all specimens arrive fixed in 10% buffered formalin. In the laboratory, the specimen and the request form are labeled with the same lab number. The specimens are left in the same order the lab number is given and processed. Safety gloves and an apron are worn when processing the specimen. Unfixed specimens received in a plane container are fixed in 10% formalin which is commercially prepared and left for one day to process. This is done if the specimen requires fixation. Certain specimens are an exception to this rule. Lymph nodes are wrapped in gauze when lymphoma is suspected, skin sections for Immunofluorescence due to Pemphigus vulgaris are suspended in saline solution, and frozen sections are not fixed since fresh tissue is sectioned for microscopic examination. Whether the result has been reported or not determines which samples are disposed and stored if the result has been reported or not: After the samples are processed the pieces of the sample that were not inserted in the cassette are placed back inside the respective container. The fixed specimen in the container is refrigerated until the result is reported (figure1). 3 weeks after reporting the result a disposal list is created and the specimens to be disposed are packed inside boxes, labeled and then sent for incineration. Samples such as fetus are kept for burial. Empty containers are left for a week and a half as a quality control and for human errors. In many cases the label on the container shows the type of specimen so the empty containers are left in case verification of type of specimen is required. Blocks and slides are stored permanently inside a storage room. All blocks and slides are carefully and methodically filed so they are available for records or for future reference. As years pass blocks remain unchanged but stains on the slide tend to fade so there is sample deterioration. After cutting, the blocks are placed in numerical order according to the year and placed inside boxes. The first and the last number of the blocks in each box are written on the boxes. All sides and top box are labeled and sealed with tape. Slides are filed in numerical order after the report is issued. Slides are placed in a slide box and the lab number of the first and last slide are written on the box. Effective self-management of time and workload The opening hours for the histology are from 6.00 am till 5.00 pm. The lab is open from Monday till Sunday and time shifts are available so the laboratory remains more open and more service is given to the public. The laboratory does not open during night shift because results in the histology laboratory are not considered urgent. Results must first be seen by the pathologist so no immediate results are required so processing is done during the day. Samples that are considered urgent In histology, specimens are not considered urgent because they have to be viewed by the pathologist results are issued. Frozen sections are considered urgent since the sample must be quickly processed so an intra-operative decision can be taken by the surgeon. Samples can also be considered urgent when a pathologist needs the results in a quick time, due to surgery scheduled on that day or the following day. Career-Long Self Directed Learning What is CPD? CPD stands for Continuing Professional Development, an ongoing free training programme in histopathology including histology and cytology (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). It is defined as â€Å"The systematic maintenance, improvement and broadening of knowledge and skills, and the development of personal qualities, necessary for the execution of professional and technical duties throughout the practitioner’s working life† (The Chartered Institution of Highways Transportation, 2011). This means that CPD allows the employer to improve and to widen knowledge, quality, competence and skills in his/her profession. What constitutes CPD activity? A CPD is constituted by meetings, short courses, conferences or workshops that are created to inform other members of stuff or even the public. Organization and participation are essential for a successful CPD. It must be transparent, accountable and visible (Fox Fox, 2004, p.182). CPD can be done: To present one’s own research report With the aid of websites, journals, posters, books and other printed media To show something encountered during work, that can be of interest to rest of the workers To make and encourage new procedures and changes Introduce a new course that will be of interesting to the public or workers How does the CPD scheme benefit Pathology employers? A CPD scheme enables the biomedical scientist to develop the necessary knowledge, attitudes, personal effectiveness and skills for his/her professional practice. The employer must identify his/her and their employer’s learning needs. In order to improve patient care the employer must be up to date on facts, new concepts and most importantly on opinion and consensus (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). The employer can record activity and document all learning achieved (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). All this is done not for only the present but also for future progression (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). What are the benefits to a biomedical scientist (the employee) participating in the CPD scheme? Keep up to date with current rapid and expanding knowledge (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Increases job satisfaction, productivity and quality of working life (Chen, Chang Yeh, 2006) Acquire new skills for safe and effective practice. This builds up confidence in the employee (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). Promote professional ideas and new initiatives, increasing job satisfaction (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). Documentation of all that is learned from the scheme is encouraged (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Benefit from quality control measures (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). Encourage reflective practice (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). Reduce risk of clinical isolation (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Prepare for new roles example managerial. Employers value employees that undergo continuous CPD since such employees show learning agility (Chen et al., 2006; Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Maintain a reputation of the biomedical possession and public assurance (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Where is the information relating to CPD displayed in Pathology? When a CPD meeting is going to be held all biomedical scientists are informed through an email. The email is sent to the principle to make sure that all the histology staff knows about the meeting. Vertical Audit Site of origin The trucut samples were taken from the right breast upper outer quadrant (Figure 2) Sample Taking and Description of sample The trucut biopsy is taken after a mammography showed a suspicious result. To diagnose, a trucut biopsy was performed. A trucut (core) biopsy is mostly done to sample tissues from a solid mass or calcium deposits, increasing sensitivity (Youk, Kim, Kim, Lee Oh, 2007). Very small masses or masses that are too deep are sampled using a guiding imaging technique. No scars are left after sampling. It has the advantage of being highly sensitive and specific (Sadler et al., 1994). The biopsy was performed at Mater Dei’s surgical operating theater (SOP) (in the Breast Clinic). The patient was given local anesthetic and left for a few minutes. A 16mm gauge core needle (figure 3) was then used to obtain the tissue samples. The tissues sampled contain tissues from the mass and normal healthy tissues from the breast. The sections sampled contain also provide more diagnostic information than mammography and fine needle aspiration. The samples are larger than FNA therefore results are more accurate (Kasraeian, Allison, Ahlmann, Fedenko Menendez, 2010). The clinician or nurse localised the mass and its boundaries and the mass was then immobilised. The needle was inserted through the skin into the lump and the tissue section was taken. To increase the chances of diagnosis 6 trucut specimens were taken. Their length varied from 9mm to 14 mm. The needle was then detached. The trucut specimens were then introduced into a container contain 10% buffered formalin. The container and the request form where received in the histology laboratory the following day. Specimen reception/numbering A courier brought the trucut specimen for histology processing into the histology laboratory. In the laboratory, the request form which comes together with the specimen was left for a day where registration and processing began. The following day, the receptionist used the HOE system to input data so they can be available only in the laboratory. The ID number of the patient was inputted followed by location the specimen was sampled example BOFFA, the name of the medical lab scientist, and the name of the pathologist/consultant. If available, the macro examination results were also included. A label containing the lab number, the letter on the cassette, the last two digits of the year, and the patient’ name and surname was prepared and printed. The label was prepared to label the slide after staining (in this case only one label was required). Specimen Registration The sample and its respective request form were both labeled with a barcode containing a specific laboratory number. The barcode was stuck on the top of the request form and at the back of the container (without covering any patient’s details). The laboratory number was also written with the aid of marker on top of the tap of the container. The request form was stamped at the top and at the bottom with the date in which it was received in the laboratory. The trucut specimen and the other histological specimens were left one after the other, according to the laboratory number. Specimen processing proceeded in this order. Specimen Processing 1. Cut-Up The trucut specimen was first processed in the laboratory at the cut-up laboratory. The name and surname of the patient and the lab number on the request form and on the specimen container were checked. The trucut biopsies in 10% buffered formalin were taken out from the container, using forceps, on the working bench. A macroscopic examination was performed on the 6 trucut biopsies obtained. Their length ranged in length from 9mm to 14mm. They were all embedded in one printed cassette labeled A1. Blue foam was also placed and the cassette was covered with a medal lid. It was then was placed in eosin with the other specimens. The trucut biopsies were then ready for further laboratory processing. After all specimens were cut, a histopathology worksheet was filled in. This included the case number of the patient, the number of tissues taken (6) , the tissue type (breast trucut), the number of blocks (A1), any comments such as left to fix (not applicable), the name of the pathologist who will examine the slides, and the name of the medical laboratory scientist (in this case who performed the cut up). 2. Tissue Processing (Impregnation) The biopsies were processed in an automated processing machine. This was performed in a closed system for trucut specimens using program A. It is important that the specimen is not larger than 3mm since it will not fit and cannot be cut afterwards. The closed system has 14 baths and it provides pressure, waving, bubbling and rotation to the tissues so the reagent can penetrate better. This is performed overnight, therefore the processor is programmed. When time for embedding is prolonged, the fixation time is prolonged to compensate. The tissues were first fixed in 10% buffered formalin so that the fixation was continued They were then dehydrated in 2 baths of 70% alcohol, in 1 bath 95% alcohol and then in 2 baths of absolute alcohol. The dehydrated sections were then moved into the chloroform and xylene. This step was done for clearing. Chloroform is a carcinogen and it affects the nervous system. The tissues were automatically moved in wax for tissue impregnation. This caused the tissues to harden. A temperature of less than 60oC was necessary because a higher temperature would have affected elasticity of the wax. Fumes go in a waste bottle and charcoal filter is present to filter leak. The tissues were now ready for embedding. 3. Embedding During embedding, the formalin fixed processed tissues are surrounded by wax so a solid paraffin block is obtained. This will enable the medical lab scientist to obtain thin sections from the block so that they can be stained and later viewed by the pathologist. The procedure involved was as follows: The cassette was taken from the processor to the warm compartment of the histocentre. The histocentre is an embedding center that facilitates paraffin embedding. It is equipped with a dispenser, specimen handling tank, warmed embedding moulds, warmed forceps wells and warm plate for orientation of the specimen in the melted paraffin. After checking the wax tank was properly filled, the cold plate and light were switched on. The cold plate helps in transferring of the melted paraffin. The tissue cassette was opened and the number on the labeled cassettes was checked with that on the worksheet entry. A suitable mould compartment corresponding to the size of the tissues in the cassette was chosen. The mould was filled with paraffin wax The tissue was placed at the bottom of the mould, correctly orientated. Incorrect orientation ruins the first section taken The trucuts were placed centrally aligned across long axis of the mould, and not placed at random. Adequate border of embedding medium must surround all sides of the tissue to give maximum cutting support. The mould placed in its cassette was placed on a cold plate and allowed to solidify. The block was scraped along a para trimmer to trim excess wax on surface. Tissues embedded must be perfectly flat to ensure that a complete section will be obtained. 4. Microtomy After the block was trimmed, thin sections were now cut using a microtome. The block was first trimmed to expose the area to be sectioned. A sharp non-rusted blade was used not to cause damage to the tissue by scoring. The microtome was cleaned from staples and sutures that remained to avoid damage of the blade. Microtomy was then started. The tightly screwed blade was checked and adjusted in the correct position. The micrometer gauge was set at a thickness of 18-22 µm. The block was placed inside the block holder of the microtome and secured. The block holder was in parallel to the edge of the blade so a straight ribbon of sections was obtained. The block holder was moved using the couae trimming device until the wax block was almost touching the edge of the blade. The fine trimming rotator device was when the block touched the edge of the blade and trimming of the block was started. Excess wax from the surface of the block was removed until the surface of the tissue was exposed. Debris due to coarse cutting was removed using a Camel hairbrush. The block was then placed on ice to cool giving the tissue and the wax similar consistency. Water absorbed by the tissue, slightly swelling it, so cutting is easier later on. If this does not occur sections tend to crease. The block was reattached to the microtome, leaving the left-hand rotator device. The micrometer gauge was then set at 3 µm. A series of sections forming a ribbon were cut and the first one was not used since it is usually thicker than 3 µm. 4 layers were taken. This means that the after the first section was achieved, the next few layers were ignored and then a second section was taken. The same was done for the third and fourth. This is done so that the pathologist can study many layers from the site taken so that diagnosis is more accurate. The appropriate ribbon section (for all the four sections obtained) was gently transferred into a water bath using forceps. The water bath is set a few degrees below the melting point of the wax. The sections were floated onto a glass slide containing 20% alcohol. The ribbon section was then released on the surface of a water bath (at a temperature less than that of melting point of wax i.e. 60oC. The sections were collected on an APES-coated glass slide. They were placed on near the other. Coated APES facilitates adhesion of the sections onto the glass slide. 4 slides were obtained (a slide for each layer taken). The number of the block was written on the glass slide using a diamond pen and placed on a slide rack. It was dried in an oven at about 60oC for 10 minute. 5. Staining Together with the other blocks from the other specimens the slides were dried and now ready for staining. The routine gold standard stain in histology is Haematoxylin and Eosin stain. This was done in an automated staining machine which followed the regressive method. This allowed overstaining of the tissues and removal excess dye by differentiation. The staining procedure was programmed as followed: The slides were left in the heating station so that all water is removed. The slides were dewaxed in a xylene for 4 minutes. This removed the surrounding wax from the tissues. They were then placed in xylene alcohol for 15 seconds. This started the gradual hydration process and prepared the tissues to be stained by haematoxylin dissolved in an aqueous solvent. The hydration process is followed by 2 baths of absolute alcohol (15 seconds each). The slides were then passed into four baths: 95% alcohol, 70% alcohol, 50% alcohol, and 30% alcohol (15 seconds each). They were then passed for 15 seconds in distilled water since haematoxylin stain is water based. The slides were then passed for 10 minutes in haematoxylin stain. The time inside the haematoxylin bath varies according to the properties of the stain. The prolonged use of the stain increases the time the slides pass in the bath. The slides were rinsed in two baths of distilled water, the first bath for 30 seconds and the second bath for 10 seconds. Differentiation then occurred in acid alcohol for 1 second. This allowed the nucleus to retain the stain and to decrease the pH (acidic) so colour changes to light purple. The slides were rinsed in distilled water for 15 seconds. Bluing occurred in tap water for 5 minutes. This raised the pH so sections became light blue. The slides were then passed into a bath containing distilled water for 15 seconds. The slides were passed in absolute alcohol for 15 minutes for dehydration and because this favours alcoholic eosin staining since it is alcohol based. Counterstaining was performed in a bath containing alcoholic eosin for 3.15 minutes. The time in alcoholic eosin varies according to the properties of the stain. The prolonged use of the stain increases the time the slides pass in the bath. Prolonging time allows the cytoplasm to take up the pink eosin stain. The slides were then dehydrated in four baths of acid alcohol, 15 seconds each. The slides were cleared in xylene alcohol for 15 seconds followed in 2 baths of xylene for 5 minutes each. This helps during mounting since DPX mountant is xylene based. The slides were left in the heating station so that all water is removed. The slides were taken out from the rack and mounted with DPX mountant. Quality Control: Two slides are stained with H E stain using the automated machine in the morning before starting routine staining. Errors in staining such as weak stains and contamination (example of eosin) can be detected so they can be solved. The 4 slides of the patient were therefore well stained since the machine passed QC on that day. Results: Nucleus: Blue Cytoplasm and other eosinophilic structures: Pale pink After processing, the number on the slides was checked with that of the cassette and the block. The slides were then labelled with their respective label. The cassette was placed on top of the slide to see if all the stained sections present on the block were sectioned. All the stained sections agreed with those on the block. Role of the Biomedical Scientist The role of the biomedical scientist is to perform all the above procedures. The medical lab scientists are divided into different sections throughout the histology laboratory: in the cut-up room and in the embedding and staining section of the laboratory (excluding immunohistochemistry laboratory). In addition, the biomedical scientist must also fill several worksheets. The initials of the biomedical lab scientists performing the cutup, macro-examination, LID and embedding are written in the histopathology worksheet. The MLS must monitor any changes example in reagents. Any injuries or misshapen occurring in the laboratory must be recorded. Pathologist Role/Result Reporting After staining, the pathologist viewed the slides under the microscope and performed a microscopic examination. The observed results were noted. The microscopic examination results were sent to the secretary who typed the result in the results form. The pathologist then read the results form for any errors and once the result was verified the pathologist authorised the result. Result Entering and Authorisation After the pathologist viewed the slides under the microscope he took the fully written request form to the secretary. The secretary separated the forms into different piles, according to the pathologist. The form was typed in a result form and printed as a result sheet. The written and the print result form were separated into 2 different racks. The report sheet was taken to the respective consultant/pathologist who reviewed the printed result sheet for any mistakes. This includes patient details, clinical details, and examination results. Once the pathologist verified the data written, he used the software to authorise the result. Once the pathologist authorised the result, this was available in the LIS of the cytology and histology laboratories. The CMI system allowed the results to be available to the wards. The result sheet was taken to the secretary where the result form was piled with other results forms according to the pathologist/consultant. Copies were made and sent to ward and patient. Result Issuing (Describe the results form) The results form contains the details of the patient, including the name and surname, address, date of birth, sex and the hospital number. The name of the clinician and the site from where trucut biopsy was taken (SOP) are included. The date the specimen was taken and the date and time it was received are also included. The lab number associated to the specimen is important to be included because besides identifying the patient it can be used for future reference. If the slides or block containing the sections are required they are labelled (including lab number) and stored and easily retrievable. The specimen type and site from where the biopsy was taken, the macroscopic examination and the microscopic examination are all included. The included, in this case â€Å"Benign breast parenchyma of the right breast†. The pathologist and the date and time the result was reported and authorised (by pathologist) and the date and time the result form was printed are also included. Benign Breast Parenchyma: The breast parenchyma forms part of the normal breast tissue. It was reported as benign during microscopy because of few scattered (not clustered) lobules seen in breast sections. Since no atypical features were observed, no special stains or immunohistochemistry staining (example ER or Her-2 stains) were required. It is ideal the patient undergoes regular breast screening. Sample Collection and Specialist Preparation The containers to process routine surgical specimens vary from small to large received in 10% buffered formalin. Very large containers are rare. The container used depends on the size of the specimens. Small specimens such as polyps, prostate scrapings, appendix, trucuts, and trephines are received in small containers containing 10% buffered formalin. Some specimens such as fetus vary in size such as fetus and colon so they received in larger specimens (medium when compared to small containers). Large specimens such as lung, breast, and colon are received in large containers containing 10% buffered formalin. Large specimens require more than one day to be cut. First the specimen is opened and left for an additional day or more for further fixation. The following are types of specimen the laboratory receives that require specialist preparation techniques and the actions taken: Trephine and Bone specimens: – Decalcification with EDTA or formic acid. EDTA is used example for bone marrow trephine and formic acid is used example on bone sternum for one day Figure 4 showing a femur bone undergoing decalcification in EDTA. Infective specimen example with HIV – Over fixation in formalin to kill infective cells* Lymph node –The time of fixation depends on the thickness of the specimen. More time the more the fixative is allowed to penetrate the lymph node.* It is left for two or three days depending on the thickness of the specimen. Over fixation will destroy the surface antigens causing artifacts and a false negative result during immunohistochemistry. Sural nerve: Sent from operation inside a gauze soaked with saline. The request from and case summary are required. The cut up laboratory gives the lab number and send the specimen to the immunohistochemistry laboratory. The tubular sural nerve is wet, and the two ends of the nerve are cut. One end is sent to a pathologist to get an idea of diagnosis and the centre part of the nerve and the other cut end are sent abroad. Muscle: This is received in saline and a lab number is given in the cut up laboratory and then sent to immunohistochemistry laboratory. It is frozen at -70oC and cut by a cryostat at -20oC. The thin sections are then stained with a series of special stains example Oil Red O and with immunohistochemistry stains example myosin. APES coated glass slides are used to prevent the tissue section from sliding off. Imprints: Example lymph node: A slide is pressed on the lymph node and the imprint is sent abroad. The lymph node is then worked normally in formalin. Imprints are used for genetic studies. Liver with no tumour: A series of special stains are performed: PAS – useful if there is a high glycogen content upon staining Reticulin Stain – useful in liver cirrhosis and liver fibrosis Masson’s Trichome Stain – Useful in liver fibrosis Iron Stain – useful for haemosiderosis, haemochromatosis Title: Frozen Sections Aim Performing a macroscopic examination by the pathologist Cut up of the specimen Obtaining sections at -17oC using a micrometer, inside a cryostat Staining the section/s by haematoxylin and eosin stain Performing microscopic examination of the stained section/s by the pathologist Introduction A frozen section is a specific type of biopsy performed during surgery so that a rapid diagnosis of the tissue extracted is made (Brender, Burke Glass, 2011). The tissue can be sectioned and stained in the laboratory for microscopic examination by the pathologist. The surgeon is given flexible intra-operative decision making according to the result given by the pathologist after the rapid processing (KarcioÄÅ ¸lu, 2005, p.121). Principle A surgery is booked and a biopsy is taken and sent to the laboratory. As soon as the fresh specimen arrives in the histology laboratory the pathologist and the selected biomedical scientists start processing the specimen. The pathologist performs a macroscopic examination on the specimen and the observed features are written down by the pathologist. The MLS then start cutting thin sections according to the specimen, using a microtome inside a cryostat at -17oC. The sections are then quickly stained with haematoxylin and eosin stain. In contrary to routine H E, the sections are not passed through xylene and dehydrated down to water. This is because the frozen sections are not embedded in paraffin wax prior staining. Since the stain is very fast there differentiation with acid alcohol is also not performed. After mounting the pathologist checks if the stained slide is satisfactory and after performs a microscopic examination. This lets the surgeon decide what to do next. Materials and Equipment required Cryostat, OCT medium, cryospray, Glass slides, cover slips, disposable pipettes, Procedure 1. Macro-examination The pathologist opens the container/s containing the specimen/s. A macro examination is performed on the specimen/s and the pathologist starts a description so that the medical lab scientist writes on the request form. The description includes the size dimension (length x width x height) in centimeters, the shape of the specimen and if it is soft or hard. The consultant suspects carcinoma and sampling is them performed. 2. Cutting the specimen The consultant cuts piece of the specimen that covers the whole area of the specimen. It is important the most suspicious is included in the segmented section so that the consultant can find and detect the tumour during microscopy. If required, multiple sections can be taken to make a diagnosis. The size cut depends on the size of the sample and tumour. More than one pieces of the specimen can be cut example: two sections from a liver (due to liver transplantation), and from a lymph node attached to the liver. 3. Cryostat The cut specimen/s is/are placed, with the aid of tweezers, in the center of a cryostat object disk containing OCT medium. The cryostat object disk with the tissue is placed on the cryobar (holder) inside the -17oC set cryostat. The tissue is left to settle so it gets cold and this is enhanced by using a cryospray. When the tissue solidifies it is placed onto an object disk holder. The machine is set at 5 µ on the control panel and the block is moved towards the edge of the blade. After making sure it is properly clamped trimming is started. The rotator on the right of the cryostat is turned. The section begins to curl as the block comes in contact with the blade. The section is held down slowly and gently with tweezers and cut until the surface of the tissue is visible. The cryostat is now quickly set at 30 µ (this is the thickness used for most of the specimens in histology). A good section is detached and taken onto a glass slide placed opposite of the block. As the tissue comes in contact with the glass slide it sticks onto it since it melts and adheres to it. The glass slide is immediately in the staining station found adjacent to the cryostat. Haematoxylin and eosin staining is performed. 4. Haematoxylin and Eosin Staining The glass slide with tissue section is f